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ZX Spectrum
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1982 series of home computers
CAPTION: ZX Spectrum
Sinclair ZX Spectrum-02b.svg
ZXSpectrum48k.jpg
An issue 2 1982 ZX Spectrum
Developer Sinclair Research
Type Home computer
Generation 8-bit
Release date
* UK: 23 April 1982 (23 April 1982)^[1]
* US: 1983 (1983)
* ESP: 1985 (1985)^[2]
Lifespan 1982-1992
Introductory price -L-125 (16KB)/-L-175 (48KB),^[3] Pta44,250
Discontinued 1992^[4]
Units sold 5 million^[5]
Media Compact Cassette, ZX Microdrive, 3-inch floppy disk on Spectrum
+3
CPU Z80A @ 3.5 MHz and equivalent
Memory 16 KB / 48 KB / 128 KB
(IEC: KiB)
Predecessor ZX81
Successor QL
The ZX Spectrum (UK: /zEd Eks/) is an 8-bit personal home computer
developed by Sinclair Research. It was first released in the United
Kingdom on 23 April 1982 and went on to become Britain's best-selling
microcomputer.^[6]
Referred to during development as the ZX81 Colour and ZX82, it was
launched as the ZX Spectrum to highlight the machine's colour display,
compared with the black and white display of its predecessor, the ZX81.
The Spectrum was released as eight different models, ranging from the
entry level with 16 KB RAM released in 1982 to the ZX Spectrum +3 with
128 KB RAM and built in floppy disk drive in 1987; altogether they sold
over 5 million units worldwide (not counting unofficial clones).
The Spectrum was among the first home computers in the United Kingdom
aimed at a mainstream audience, similar in significance to the
Commodore 64 in the US or the MO5 in France. The introduction of the ZX
Spectrum led to a boom in companies producing software and hardware for
the machine,^[7] the effects of which are still seen. Some credit it as
the machine which launched the British information technology
industry.^[8] Licensing deals and clones followed, earning Clive
Sinclair a knighthood for services to British industry.^[9]
The Commodore 64, Dragon 32, Oric-1, Oric Atmos, BBC Micro and later
the Amstrad CPC range were rivals to the Spectrum in the UK market
during the early 1980s. The machine was officially discontinued in
1992.
[ ]
Contents
* 1 Hardware
* 2 Firmware
* 3 Sinclair Research models
+ 3.1 Pre-production designs
+ 3.2 ZX Spectrum 16K/48K
+ 3.3 ZX Spectrum+
+ 3.4 ZX Spectrum 128
* 4 Amstrad models
+ 4.1 ZX Spectrum +2
+ 4.2 ZX Spectrum +2A
+ 4.3 ZX Spectrum +3
+ 4.4 ZX Spectrum +2B and +3B
* 5 Clones and re-creations
+ 5.1 Official clones
+ 5.2 Unofficial clones
+ 5.3 Recreations
* 6 Peripherals
* 7 Software
+ 7.1 Distribution
+ 7.2 Copying and backup
+ 7.3 Community
+ 7.4 Notable developers
* 8 Reception
* 9 Legacy
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 References
* 13 External links
Hardware[edit]
ZX Spectrum 48K motherboard (Issue 3B: 1983, heat sink removed)
The Spectrum is based on a Zilog Z80, a CPU running at 3.5 MHz (or NEC
D780C-1 clone). The original model has 16 KB (16 *1024 bytes) of ROM
and either 16 KB or 48 KB of RAM. Hardware design was by Richard
Altwasser of Sinclair Research, and the outward appearance was designed
by Sinclair's industrial designer Rick Dickinson.^[7]
Video output is through an RF modulator and was designed for use with
contemporary television sets, for a simple colour graphic display. Text
can be displayed using 32 columns * 24 rows of characters from the ZX
Spectrum character set or from a set provided within an application,
from a palette of 15 shades: seven colours at two levels of brightness
each, plus black.^[10] The image resolution is 256 *192 with the same
colour limitations.^[11] To conserve memory, colour is stored separate
from the pixel bitmap in a low resolution, 32 *24 grid overlay,
corresponding to the character cells. In practice, this means that all
pixels of an 8x8 character block share one foreground colour and one
background colour. Altwasser received a patent for this design.^[12]
An "attribute" consists of a foreground and a background colour, a
brightness level (normal or bright) and a flashing "flag" which, when
set, causes the two colours to swap at regular intervals.^[11] This
scheme leads to what was dubbed colour clash or attribute clash, where
a desired colour of a specific pixel could not necessarily be selected.
This became a distinctive feature of the Spectrum, meaning programs,
particularly games, had to be designed around this limitation. Other
machines available around the same time, for example the Amstrad CPC or
the Commodore 64, did not suffer from this limitation. The Commodore 64
used colour attributes in a similar way, but a special multicolour mode
and hardware sprites were used to avoid attribute clash.^[13]
Sound output is through a beeper on the machine itself, capable of
producing one channel with 10 octaves. Software was later available
that could play two channel sound. The machine includes an expansion
bus edge connector and 3.5 mm audio in/out ports for the connection of
a cassette recorder for loading and saving programs and data. The "ear"
port has a higher output than the "mic" and is recommended for
headphones, with "mic" for attaching to other audio devices as line
in.^[14]
The machine was manufactured in Dundee, Scotland, in the now closed
Timex factory.^[15]
Firmware[edit]
The machine's Sinclair BASIC interpreter is stored in ROM (along with
fundamental system-routines) and was written by Steve Vickers on
contract from Nine Tiles Ltd. The Spectrum's chiclet keyboard (on top
of a membrane, similar to calculator keys) is marked with BASIC
keywords. For example, pressing "G" when in programming mode would
insert the BASIC command GO TO.^[16]
The BASIC interpreter was developed from that used on the ZX81 and a
ZX81 BASIC program can be typed into a Spectrum largely unmodified, but
Spectrum BASIC included many extra features making it easier to use.
The ZX Spectrum character set was expanded from that of the ZX81, which
did not feature lower-case letters. Spectrum BASIC included extra
keywords for the more advanced display and sound, and supported
multi-statement lines. The cassette interface was much more advanced,
saving and loading around five times faster than the ZX81 (1500 bits
per second compared to 307),^[17] and unlike the ZX81, the Spectrum
could maintain the TV display during tape storage and retrieval
operations. As well as being able to save programs, the Spectrum could
save the contents of arrays, the contents of the screen memory, and the
contents of any defined range of memory addresses.^[18]
Sinclair Research models[edit]
Pre-production designs[edit]
Rick Dickinson came up with a number of designs for the "ZX82" project
before the final ZX Spectrum design. A number of the keyboard legends
changed during the design phase including ARC becoming CIRCLE, FORE
becoming INK and BACK becoming PAPER. The Spectrum reused a number of
design elements of the ZX81: The ROM code for things such as floating
point calculations and expression parsing were very similar (with a few
obsolete ZX81 routines left in the Spectrum ROM). The simple keyboard
decoding and cassette interfaces were nearly identical (although the
latter was now programmed to load/save at a higher speed). The central
ULA integrated circuit was somewhat similar although it implemented the
major enhancement over the ZX81: A (fully) hardware based television
raster generator (with colour) that indirectly gave the new machine
approximately four times as much processing power as the ZX81, simply
due to the Z80 now being released from this video generation task. A
bug in the ULA as originally designed meant that the keyboard did not
always scan correctly, and was rectified by a "dead cockroach" (a small
circuit board mounted upside down next to the CPU) for Issue 1 ZX
Spectrums.^[19]
ZX Spectrum 16K/48K[edit]
ZX Spectrum 16K/48K (Dimensions (mm): 233 *144 *30 (W *H *D) @ ~=552
grams).^[20]
The original ZX Spectrum is remembered for its rubber chiclet keyboard,
diminutive size and distinctive rainbow motif. It was originally
released on 23 April 1982^[21] with 16 KB of RAM for -L-125 (equivalent
to -L-469 in 2021) or with 48 KB for -L-175 (equivalent to -L-657 in
2021);^[22] these prices were reduced to -L-99 (equivalent to -L-355 in
2021) and -L-129 (equivalent to -L-463 in 2021) respectively in
1983.^[23] Owners of the 16 KB model could purchase an internal 32 KB
RAM upgrade, which for early "Issue 1" machines consisted of a
daughterboard. Later issue machines required the fitting of 8 dynamic
RAM chips and a few TTL chips. Users could mail their 16K Spectrums to
Sinclair to be upgraded to 48 KB versions. Later revisions contained
64 KB of memory but were configured such that only 48 KB were
usable.^[24] External 32 KB RAM packs that mounted in the rear
expansion slot were available from third parties. Both machines had
16 KB of onboard ROM.
An "Issue 1" ZX Spectrum can be distinguished from later models by the
colour of the keys - light grey for Issue 1, blue-grey for later
machines.^[25] Although the official service manual states that
approximately 26,000 of these original boards were manufactured,^[26]
subsequent serial number analysis shows that only 16,000 were produced,
almost all of which fell in the serial number range 001-000001 to
001-016000.^[27] An online tool now exists to allow users to ascertain
the likely issue number of their ZX Spectrum by inputting the serial
number.^[28]
The Sinclair models featured audio line in and out, in the form of an
"ear" and "mic" socket. An external tape recorder was needed to load
the majority of software released, or the ZX Microdrive. Either socket
could be connected to headphones or an amplifier as an audio output,
although this would not disable the internal speaker.
The original ZX Spectrum model experienced numerous changes to its
motherboard design; mainly to improve manufacturing efficiencies, but
also to correct bugs from previous boards. Another issue was with the
Spectrum's power supply. In March 1983,^[29] Sinclair issued an
"URGENT" recall warning for all owners of models bought after 1 January
1983. Plugs with a plain (rather than textured) surface were at risk of
causing shock, and were asked to be sent back to Sinclair's office in
Broad Lane, Cottenham. It's not known how many power supplies were
returned, and how many still exist in the wild.^[original research?]
ZX Spectrum+[edit]
ZX Spectrum+ (Dimensions (mm): 319 *149 *38 (W *H *D))^[20]
Planning of the ZX Spectrum+ started in June 1984,^[30] and was
released on October 15.^[31]^[32] This 48 KB Spectrum (development
code-name TB^[30]) introduced a new QL-style case with an
injection-moulded keyboard and a reset button that was basically a
switch that shorted across the CPU reset capacitor. Electronically, it
was identical to the previous 48 KB model. It was possible to change
the system boards between the original case and the Spectrum+ case. It
retailed for -L-179.95 (equivalent to -L-615 in 2021).^[33] A DIY
conversion-kit for older machines was available. Early on, the machine
outsold the rubber-key model 2:1;^[30] however, some retailers reported
a failure rate of up to 30%, compared with a more usual 5-6% for the
older model.^[32] In early 1985, the original Spectrum was officially
discontinued and the ZX Spectrum+ was reduced in price to -L-129.95
(equivalent to -L-419 in 2021).^[34]
ZX Spectrum 128[edit]
ZX Spectrum 128
In 1985, Sinclair developed the ZX Spectrum 128 (code-named Derby) in
conjunction with their Spanish distributor Investronica (a subsidiary
of El Corte Ingles department store group).^[35] Investronica had
helped adapt the ZX Spectrum+ to the Spanish market after the Spanish
government introduced a special tax on all computers with 64 KB RAM or
less,^[36] and a law which obliged all computers sold in Spain to
support the Spanish alphabet and show messages in Spanish.^[37]
The appearance of the ZX Spectrum 128 was similar to the ZX Spectrum+,
with the exception of a large external heatsink for the internal 7805
voltage regulator added to the right hand end of the case, replacing
the internal heatsink in previous versions. This external heatsink led
to the system's nickname, "The Toast Rack".^[38]
New features included 128 KB RAM with RAM disc commands 'save !"name"',
three-channel audio via the AY-3-8912 chip, MIDI compatibility, an
RS-232 serial port, an RGB monitor port, 32 KB of ROM including an
improved BASIC editor, and an external keypad.
The machine was simultaneously presented for the first time and
launched in September 1985 at the SIMO '85 trade show in Spain, with a
price of 44,250 pesetas. Because of the large number of unsold
Spectrum+ models, Sinclair decided not to start selling in the UK until
January 1986 at a price of -L-179.95 (equivalent to -L-561 in
2021).^[39] No external keypad was available for the UK release,
although the ROM routines to use it and the port itself remained.
The Z80 processor used in the Spectrum has a 16-bit address bus, which
means only 64 KB of memory can be directly addressed. To facilitate the
extra 80 KB of RAM the designers used bank switching so the new memory
would be available as eight pages of 16 KB at the top of the address
space. The same technique was used to page between the new 16 KB editor
ROM and the original 16 KB BASIC ROM at the bottom of the address
space.^[40]
The new sound chip and MIDI out abilities were exposed to the BASIC
programming language with the command PLAY and a new command SPECTRUM
was added to switch the machine into 48K mode, keeping the current
BASIC program intact (although there is no command to switch back to
128K mode). To enable BASIC programmers to access the additional
memory, a RAM disk was created where files could be stored in the
additional 80 KB of RAM. The new commands took the place of two
existing user-defined-character spaces causing compatibility problems
with certain BASIC programs.^[41]
The ZX Spectrum 128 had no internal speaker, unlike its predecessors.
Sound was produced from the television speaker instead.^[42]
The Spanish version had the "128K" logo in white; the British one had
the same logo in red.
Amstrad models[edit]
ZX Spectrum +2[edit]
ZX Spectrum +2
The ZX Spectrum +2 was Amstrad's first Spectrum, coming shortly after
their purchase of the Spectrum range and "Sinclair" brand in 1986. The
machine featured an all-new grey case featuring a spring-loaded
keyboard, dual joystick ports, and a built-in cassette recorder dubbed
the "Datacorder" (like the Amstrad CPC 464), but was in most respects
identical to the ZX Spectrum 128. The main menu screen lacked the
Spectrum 128's "Tape Test" option, and the ROM was altered to account
for a new 1986 Amstrad copyright message. Production costs had been
reduced and the retail price dropped to -L-139--L-149.^[43]
The new keyboard did not include the BASIC keyword markings that were
found on earlier Spectrums, except for the keywords LOAD, CODE and RUN
which were useful for loading software. Instead, the +2 boasted a menu
system, almost identical to the ZX Spectrum 128, where one could switch
between 48K BASIC programming with the keywords, and 128K BASIC
programming in which all words (keywords and otherwise) must be typed
out in full (although the keywords are still stored internally as one
character each). Despite these changes, the layout remained identical
to that of the 128.^[44]
The ZX Spectrum +2 power supply was a grey version of the ZX Spectrum+
and 128 power supply.^[45]
ZX Spectrum +2A[edit]
ZX Spectrum +2A
The ZX Spectrum +2A was a variant of the Spectrum +3, also released in
1987, and housed inside a black case. The Spectrum +2A/+3 motherboard
(AMSTRAD part number Z70830) was designed such that it could be
assembled without the floppy disk controller or associated logic and a
+2 style "datacorder" connected.^[46] Originally, Amstrad planned to
introduce an additional disk interface for the +2A/+2B called the
AMSTRAD SI-1,^[47] but it never appeared. If an external disk drive was
added, the "+2A" on the system OS menu would change to a +3.
The power supply of the ZX Spectrum +2A used the same pinout as the +3.
The power supply purchased with the +2A/B had "Sinclair +2" written on
the case.^[48]
ZX Spectrum +3[edit]
ZX Spectrum +3
The ZX Spectrum +3, released in 1987, looked similar to the +2A but
featured a built-in 3-inch floppy disk drive (like the Amstrad CPC
6128) instead of the tape drive, and was in a black case. It was
launched in 1987, initially retailed for -L-249^[49] and then later
-L-199^[50] and was the only Spectrum capable of running the CP/M
operating system without additional hardware.
The +3 saw the addition of two more 16 KB ROMs. One was home to the
second part of the reorganised 128 ROM and the other hosted the +3's
disk operating system. This was a modified version of Amstrad's PCWDOS
(the disk access code used in LocoScript), called +3DOS. These two new
16 KB ROMs and the original two 16 KB ROMs were now physically
implemented together as two 32 KB chips. To be able to run CP/M, which
requires RAM at the bottom of the address space, the bank-switching was
further improved, allowing the ROM to be paged out for another 16 KB of
RAM.^[citation needed]
Such core changes brought incompatibilities:
* Removal of several lines on the expansion bus edge connector
(video, power, and IORQGE); caused many external devices problems;
some such as the VTX5000 modem could be used via the "FixIt"
device.
* Dividing ROMCS into two lines, to disable both ROMs.
* Reading a non-existent I/O port no longer returned the last
attribute; caused certain games such as Arkanoid to be unplayable.
* Memory timing changes; certain RAM banks were now contended causing
high-speed colour-changing effects to fail.
* The keypad scanning routines from the ROM were removed.
* Move 1 byte address in ROM.^[citation needed]
Some older 48K and 128K games were incompatible with the machine. The
ZX Interface 1 was incompatible due to differences in ROM and expansion
connector, making it impossible to connect and use the Microdrive
units.^[51]
There was a regression in sound quality from the previous 128K models -
an error with a resistor placement meant sound was distorted.^[52]
The ZX Spectrum +3 power supply provides the same voltages as the one
supplied with +2A/B. This power supply has the same DIN connector so
can be used with the +2A/B. The power supply purchased with the +3 had
"Sinclair +3" written on the case.^[53]
Production of the +3 ceased in December 1990, believed to be in
response to Amstrad relaunching their CPC range.^[54] At the time, it
was estimated about 15% of ZX Spectrums sold had been +3 models.
Production of the +2B (the only other model then still in production)
continued, as it was believed not to be in competition with other
computers in Amstrad's product range.^[55]
ZX Spectrum +2B and +3B[edit]
The ZX Spectrum +2B and ZX Spectrum +3B were functionally similar in
design to the Spectrum +2A and +3.^[56] The main electronic differences
were changes to the generation of the audio output signal to resolve
problems with clipping.^[citation needed]
Unlike the +2A and +3, the Spectrum +2B and +3B do not share a common
motherboard.^[citation needed] The +2B board (AMSTRAD part number
Z70833) has no provision for floppy disk controller circuitry and the
+3B motherboard (Amstrad part number Z70835) has no provision for
connecting an internal tape drive. Production of all Amstrad Spectrum
models ended in 1992.^[citation needed]
Clones and re-creations[edit]
See also: List of ZX Spectrum clones
Official clones[edit]
Sinclair licensed the Spectrum design to Timex Corporation in the
United States, that sold several machines under the Timex Sinclair
brand. An enhanced version of the original Spectrum, with better sound,
graphics and other modifications was marketed in the US by Timex as the
Timex Sinclair 2068. Timex's derivatives were largely incompatible with
Sinclair systems. Some of the Timex innovations were later adopted by
Sinclair Research. A case in point was the abortive Pandora portable
Spectrum, whose ULA had the high resolution video mode pioneered in the
T/S 2068. Pandora had a flat-screen monitor and Microdrives and was
intended to be Sinclair's business portable. After Amstrad bought the
computer business of Sinclair Research, Sir Clive retained the rights
to the Pandora project, and it evolved into the Cambridge Computer Z88,
launched in 1987.^[57]
Starting in 1984, Timex of Portugal developed and produced several
Timex branded computers, including the Timex Computer 2048, highly
compatible with the Sinclair ZX Spectrum 48K, which was very successful
in both Portugal and Poland.^[58] An NTSC version was also made,
initially intended for a United States release, but it was sold only in
Chile, Ecuador and Argentina. Timex of Portugal also made a PAL version
of the T/S 2068, called the Timex Computer 2068 (or TC 2068 for short)
which had different buffers for both the ULA and the CPU, which
significantly increased the compatibility with ZX Spectrum software
when compared to the North American model (the T/S 2068). The expansion
port was also modified and made to be 100% compatible with the ZX
Spectrum's, which bypassed the need for a "Twister Board" expansion
that the T/S 2068 needed to make it compatible with ZX Spectrum
expansion hardware. It also had the AY sound output routed to the
monitor/TV speakers instead of the internal twitter. The software
developed for the TC 2068 is completely compatible with the T/S 2068,
since the ROMs weren't altered. Timex of Portugal also developed a ZX
Spectrum "emulator" on cartridge form that mapped the first 16 KB
exactly like the earlier TC 2048 computer did. Several other upgrades
were made available, including a BASIC64 cartridge that enabled the TC
2068 to use high resolution (512x192) modes. Despite having an
AY-3-8912 sound chip, it's not connected in the same ports as in the ZX
Spectrum 128K, rendering the TC 2048 incompatible with the AY sound
that the Spectrum 128K games produced. Due to all its advantages
compared to the usual T/S 2068, a North American company, Zebra
Systems, licensed the Timex TC 2068 and sold it in the United States as
the Zebra Silver Avenger. They also sold the FDD 3000 as the Zebra FDD
3000 in a silver case (as opposed to the European black cases) to match
their colour scheme. Timex of Portugal was working on a successor to
the TC 2068 called the TC 3256, using a Z80A CPU and featuring 256 KB
of RAM, which would feature a ZX Spectrum BASIC operating mode and a
CP/M operating mode, but the company pulled the plug on its development
as the 8-bit market was no longer profitable by the end of 1989. Only
one complete and fully working prototype of the TC 3256 was
made.^[citation needed]
deciBells dB Spectrum+ and PSU
In India, deciBells Electronics introduced a licensed version of the
Spectrum+ in 1988. Dubbed the "dB Spectrum+", it did reasonably well in
the Indian market and sold many units until 1990, when the market died
away.^[citation needed]
Unofficial clones[edit]
Didaktik Gama
Numerous unofficial Spectrum clones were produced, especially in the
Eastern and Central European countries (e.g. in USSR, Romania, and
Czechoslovakia) where several models were produced (such as the Tim-S,
HC85, HC91, Cobra, Junior, CIP, CIP 3, Jet, Didaktik Gama), some
featuring CP/M and a 5.25"/3.5" floppy disk. There were also clones
produced in South America (e.g. Microdigital TK90X and TK95, made in
Brazil and the Czerweny CZ, made in Argentina). In the Soviet Union, ZX
Spectrum clones were assembled by thousands of small start-ups and
distributed through poster ads and street stalls. Over 50 such clone
models existed.^[59] Some of them are still being produced, such as the
Pentagon and ATM Turbo.
In the UK, Spectrum peripheral vendor Miles Gordon Technology (MGT)
released the SAM Coupe as a potential successor with some Spectrum
compatibility. By this point, the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST had
taken hold of the market, leaving MGT in eventual receivership.^[60]
Recreations[edit]
In 2013, an FPGA-based redesign of the original ZX Spectrum known as
the ZX Uno, was formally announced. All of its hardware, firmware and
software are open source,^[61] released as Creative Commons license
Share-alike. The use of a Spartan FPGA allows the system to not only
re-implement the ZX Spectrum, but many other 8 bit computers and games
consoles^[62] The device can also run modern open FPGA machines such as
the Chloe 280SE.^[63] The Uno was successfully crowdfunded in 2016 and
the first boards went on sale during the same year.^[64]
In January 2014, Elite Systems, who produced a successful range of
software for the original ZX Spectrum in the 1980s, announced plans for
a Spectrum-themed bluetooth keyboard that would attach to mobile
devices.^[65]^[66] The company used a crowdfunding campaign to fund the
Recreated ZX Spectrum, which would be compatible with games the company
had already released on iTunes and Google Play.^[67] Elite Systems took
down its Spectrum Collection application the following month, due to
complaints from authors of the original 1980's game software that they
had not been paid for the content.^[68] Wired described the finished
device, which was styled as an original Spectrum 48k keyboard, as
"absolutely gorgeous"^[69] but said it was ultimately more of an
expensive novelty than an actual Spectrum. In July 2019, Eurogamer
reported that many of the orders had yet to be delivered due to a
dispute between Elite Systems and their manufacturer, Eurotech.^[70]
Later in 2014, the Sinclair ZX Spectrum Vega retro video game console
was announced by Retro Computers Ltd and crowdfunded on Indiegogo with
the backing of Clive Sinclair.^[71] The Vega, released in 2015, took
the form of a handheld TV game^[71]^[72] but the lack of a full
keyboard^[73] led to criticism from reviewers due to the large number
of text adventures supplied with the device.^[74]^[75] Most reviewers
branded the device cheap and uncomfortable to use^[76]^[69]
The follow-up, the ZX Spectrum Vega+ was designed as a handheld game
console. Despite reaching its crowdfunding target in March 2016,^[77]
the company failed to fulfil the majority of orders. On 30 July 2018,
Eurogamer reported that one backer had received a ZX Vega+ console and
quoted them as being "quite disappointed" that "the few supplied sample
games don't work" and that the "build quality's not the greatest".^[78]
Reviewing the Vega+, The Register criticised numerous aspects and
features of the machine, including its design and build quality and
summed up by saying that the "entire feel is plasticky and
inconsequential".^[79] Retro Computers Ltd was wound up on 1 February
2019.^[80]
The ZX Spectrum Next (not to be confused with the older, two-processor
ZX Next) is an expanded and updated version of the ZX Spectrum computer
implemented with FPGA technology^[81] funded by a Kickstarter campaign
in April 2017,^[82] with the board-only computer delivered to backers
later that year.^[83] The finished machine, including a case
designed^[84] by Rick Dickinson who died during the development of the
project, was released to backers in February 2020.^[85] MagPi called it
"a lovely piece of kit", noting that it is "well-designed and
well-built: authentic to the original, and with technology that nods to
the past while remaining functional and relevant in the modern
age".^[86] PC Pro magazine called the Next "undeniably impressive"
while noting that the printed manual lacked an index, and that some
features are "not quite ready".^[87] A further Kickstarter for an
improved revision of the hardware was funded in August 2020.^[88]
Peripherals[edit]
Official peripherals: the ZX Printer, the ZX Interface 2, the ZX
Interface 1 and the ZX Microdrive
Several peripherals were marketed by Sinclair: the ZX Printer was
already on the market,^[89] as the ZX Spectrum expansion bus was
partially backwards-compatible with that of the ZX81.
The ZX Interface 1 add-on module included 8 KB of ROM, an RS-232 serial
port, a proprietary LAN interface (called ZX Net), and an interface for
the connection of up to eight ZX Microdrives - somewhat unreliable but
speedy tape-loop cartridge storage devices released in July
1983.^[90]^[91] These were used in a revised version on the Sinclair
QL, whose storage format was electrically compatible but logically
incompatible with the Spectrum's. Sinclair also released the ZX
Interface 2 which added two joystick ports and a ROM cartridge
port.^[92]
The Kempston interface, a third-party add-on widely used for joysticks
There were a plethora of third-party hardware addons. The better known
of these included the Kempston joystick interface, the Morex
Peripherals Centronics/RS-232 interface, the Currah Microspeech unit
(speech synthesis),^[93] Videoface Digitiser,^[94] RAM pack, the
Cheetah Marketing SpecDrum,^[95] a drum machine, and the
Multiface,^[96] a snapshot and disassembly tool from Romantic Robot.
Keyboards were especially popular in view of the original's notorious
"dead flesh" feel.^[97]
There were disk drive interfaces, such as the Abbeydale
Designers/Watford Electronics SPDOS, Abbeydale Designers/Kempston KDOS
and Opus Discovery. The SPDOS and KDOS interfaces were the first to
come bundled with office productivity software (Tasword Word Processor,
Masterfile database and Omnicalc spreadsheet). This bundle, together
with OCP's Stock Control, Finance and Payroll systems, introduced small
businesses to a streamlined, computerised operation. The most popular
floppy disk systems (except in East Europe) were the DISCiPLE and +D
systems released by Miles Gordon Technology in 1987 and 1988
respectively. Both systems had the ability to store memory images onto
disk snapshots could later be used to restore the Spectrum to its exact
previous state.^[citation needed] They were both compatible with the
Microdrive command syntax, which made porting existing software much
simpler.^[98]
During the mid-1980s, Telemap Group Ltd launched a fee-based service
allowing users to connect their ZX Spectrums via a Prism Micro Products
VTX5000 modem to a viewdata service known as Micronet 800, hosted by
Prestel, which provided news and information about microcomputers. The
service allowed a form of instant messaging and online shopping.^[99]
Software[edit]
Main articles: ZX Spectrum software and List of ZX Spectrum games
Screenshots from ZX Spectrum games Rebelstar and Laser Squad
While games comprised the majority of commercial ZX Spectrum software,
there were also programming language implementations, databases (e.g.
VU-File^[100]), word processors (e.g. Tasword II^[101]), spreadsheets
(e.g. VU-Calc^[100]), drawing and painting tools (e.g. OCP Art
Studio^[102]), and even 3D-modelling (e.g. VU-3D^[103]^[104]) and
archaeology software.^[105]
The early Spectrum models' great success as a games platform came in
spite of its lack of built-in joystick ports, primitive sound
generation, and colour support that was optimised for text
display:^[106]^[failed verification] the hardware limitations of the
platform required a particular level of creativity from video game
designers.^[107]
From August 1982,^[108] the ZX Spectrum came bundled with a software
starter pack in the form of a cassette tape entitled Horizons: Software
Starter Pack,^[109] which included 8 programs: Thro' the Wall (a
Breakout clone), Bubblesort, Evolution (an ecosystem of foxes and
rabbits), Life (an implementation of Conway's Game of Life), Draw (a
basic object-based drawing utility), Monte Carlo (a simulation of the
rolling of two dice), Character Generator (for editing user defined
graphics), Beating of Waves (plots the sum of two sine
waves).^[citation needed]
According to the 90th issue of the British gaming magazine GamesMaster,
the ten best games released were (in descending order) Head Over Heels,
Jet Set Willy, Skool Daze, Renegade, R-Type, Knight Lore, Dizzy, The
Hobbit, The Way of the Exploding Fist, and Match Day II.^[110]
The last full price, commercial game to be released for the Spectrum
was Alternative Software's Dalek Attack, which was released in July
1993.^[citation needed]
A homebrew community continues into the present day,^[citation needed]
with several games being released commercially from new software houses
such as Cronosoft.^[citation needed]
Distribution[edit]
Most Spectrum software was originally distributed on audio cassette
tapes. The Spectrum was intended to work with a normal domestic
cassette recorder.^[111]
Although the ZX Microdrive was initially greeted with good
reviews,^[112] it never took off as a distribution method due to
worries about the quality of the cartridges and piracy.^[113] Hence the
main use became to complement tape releases, usually utilities and
niche products like the Tasword word processing software and Trans
Express, (a tape to microdrive copying utility). No games are known to
be exclusively released on Microdrive.^[citation needed]
Although the Interface 2 proved popular, the high cost of ROM
cartridges, and the fact that they were limited to 16K in size, meant
that very few titles were released in this format.^[114]
Software was distributed through print media; magazines^[115] and
books.^[116] The reader would type the BASIC program listing into the
computer by hand, run it, and could save it to tape for later use.
Software distributed in this way was in general simpler and slower than
its assembly language counterparts. Magazines printed long lists of
checksummed hexadecimal digits with machine code games or tools.
Another software distribution method was to broadcast the audio stream
from the cassette on another medium and have users record it onto an
audio cassette themselves. In radio or television shows in many
European countries, the host would describe a program, instruct the
audience to connect a cassette tape recorder to the radio or TV and
then broadcast the program over the airwaves in audio format.^[117]
Some magazines distributed 7" 33
1/3 rpm flexidisc records, a variant of regular vinyl records which
could be played on a standard record player.^[118] These disks were
known under various trademarked names including "Floppy ROM",
"Flexisoft", and "Discoflex".
Copying and backup[edit]
Spectrum software was distributed almost exclusively on audio cassettes
Many copiers--utilities to copy programs from audio tape to another
tape, microdrive tapes, and later on diskettes--were available for the
Spectrum. As a response to this, publishers introduced copy protection
measures to their software, including different loading schemes.^[119]
Other methods for copy prevention were also used including asking for a
particular word from the documentation included with the game--often a
novella such as the Silicon Dreams trilogy--or another physical device
distributed with the software--e.g. Lenslok as used in Elite, or the
colour-code chart included with Jet Set Willy. Special hardware, such
as Romantic Robot's Multiface, was able to dump a copy of the ZX
Spectrum RAM to disk/tape at the press of a button, entirely
circumventing the copy protection systems.^[citation needed]
Most Spectrum software has been converted to current media and is
available for download. One popular program for converting Spectrum
files from tape is Taper; it allows connecting a cassette tape player
to the line in port of a sound card, or--through a simple home-built
device--to the parallel port of a PC.^[120] Once in files on a host
machine, the software can be executed on an emulator.
See also: List of computer system emulators S: Sinclair ZX Spectrum and
clones
Community[edit]
The ZX Spectrum enjoyed a very strong community early on. Several
commercially published print magazines were dedicated to covering the
home computer family and its offshoots including Sinclair User (1982),
Your Spectrum (1983) - rebranded as Your Sinclair in 1986, and CRASH
(1984). In the early years, the magazines were focused on programming
for the system, and carried many articles containing type-in programs
and machine code tutorials. Later on they became almost completely
game-oriented, starting many of the writing-styles, trends and tropes
found in later video-game publications and reviews.^[citation needed]
Several other contemporary computer magazines covered the ZX Spectrum
as part of their regular coverage of the home computer industry at that
time. These included Computer Gamer, Computer and Video Games,
Computing Today, Popular Computing Weekly, Your Computer and The Games
Machine.^[121]^[failed verification]
The Spectrum is affectionately known as the Speccy by elements of its
fan following.^[122]
More than 80 electronic magazines existed, many in Russian. Most
notable of them were AlchNews (UK), Enigma Tape Magazine (UK), 16/48
(UK), ZX-Format (Russia), Adventurer (Russia), Microhobby (Spain) and
Spectrofon (Russia). These frequently included games, demos, and
utilities alongside the magazine content (much like a covertape on a
paper magazine).^[citation needed]
Notable developers[edit]
A number of notable games developers began their careers on the ZX
Spectrum, including David Perry of Shiny Entertainment, and Tim and
Chris Stamper (founders of Rare, formerly Ultimate Play the Game, maker
of many games for Nintendo and Microsoft game consoles). Other
prominent games developers include Julian Gollop (Chaos, Rebelstar,
X-COM series), Matthew Smith (Manic Miner, Jet Set Willy), Jon Ritman
(Match Day, Head Over Heels), Jonathan "Joffa" Smith (Ping Pong,
Batman: The Caped Crusader, Mikie, Hyper Sports), The Oliver Twins (the
Dizzy series), Clive Townsend (Saboteur), Sandy White (Ant Attack; I,
of the Mask), Pete Cooke (Tau Ceti), Mike Singleton (The Lords of
Midnight, War in Middle Earth),^[citation needed] and Alan Cox.^[123]
Although the 48K Spectrum's audio hardware was not as capable as chips
in other popular 8-bit home computers of the era, computer musicians
David Whittaker and Tim Follin produced notable multi-channel music for
it.^[citation needed]
Jeff Minter ported some of his Commodore VIC-20 games to the ZX
Spectrum.^[124]
Reception[edit]
BYTE in January 1983 acknowledged the appeal of the Spectrum's low
-L-125 price to British consumers and called it a "promising machine".
It criticised the keyboard; "inexpensive or not, the ... layout is
impossible to justify ... poorly designed in several respects". The
review was sceptical of the computer's appeal to American consumers if
sold for US$220--"hardly competitive with comparable low-cost American
units"--and expected that Timex would sell it for $125-150.^[125]
Legacy[edit]
On 23 April 2012, a Google doodle honoured the 30th anniversary of the
Spectrum. As it coincided with St George's Day, the logo was of St
George fighting a dragon in the style of a Spectrum loading
screen.^[126]
In December 2018, one of the alternate endings in Black Mirror:
Bandersnatch included the main character playing data tape audio that,
when loaded into a ZX Spectrum software emulator, generates a QR code
leading to a website with a playable version of the Nohzdyve game
featured in the episode.^[127]
Some programmers have continued to code for the platform by using
emulators on PCs.^[128]
Since 2020, there has been a museum, LOAD ZX Spectrum, dedicated to the
ZX Spectrum and other Sinclair products (as well as Timex, Investronica
and many others), located in Cantanhede, Portugal.^[129]
See also[edit]
* Video games portal
* icon 1980s portal
* flag United Kingdom portal
* List of computer system emulators#Sinclair ZX Spectrum and clones
* List of ZX Spectrum games
* ZX Spectrum graphic modes
* ZX Spectrum character set
* Contended memory
Notes[edit]
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References[edit]
*
Mott, Tony (January 2000). "Videogaming: The Odyssey". Edge. No. 80.
Bath: Future plc. p. 76.^[dead link]
Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex
Press. pp. 188-191. ISBN 978-1781575703.
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