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Propaganda techniques
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Methods of mind manipulation, many of which are based on logical
fallacies
Anti-capitalist propaganda
A number of propaganda techniques based on social psychological
research are used to generate propaganda. Many of these same techniques
can be classified as logical fallacies, since propagandists use
arguments that, while sometimes convincing, are not necessarily valid.
[ ]
Contents
* 1 General character
+ 1.1 Definition
+ 1.2 Classification
+ 1.3 Manipulation and media
+ 1.4 Psychological aspects
+ 1.5 Logic and rhetoric
* 2 Specific techniques
* 3 See also
* 4 References
General character[edit]
Definition[edit]
Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell define Propaganda as the
"deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate
cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the
desired intent of the propagandist.^[1] Harold D. Laswell's definition
targets even more precisely the technical aspect:
"Propaganda in the broadest sense is the technique of influencing
human action by the manipulation of representations. These
representations may take spoken, written, pictorial or musical
form."^[2]
Manipulation can be organized or unorganized, conscious or unconscious,
politically or socially motivated. The concept reaches from systematic
state propaganda to manipulate public opinion (Edward Bernays) to
"sociological propaganda" (propaganda of integration),^[3] where the
unconscious desire to be manipulated and self manipulation leads the
individual to adapt to the socially expected thoughts and behaviours
(Jacques Ellul).^[4]
The transition from non-propaganda to propaganda is fluid. Effective
manipulation presupposes non-manipulative embedding in order to unfold
its effect, which is why the reference to these contexts is not yet a
refutation of the manipulative character of an act of
communication.^[3]
Classification[edit]
Propaganda is understood as a form of manipulation of public opinion.
The semiotic manipulation of signs is the essential characteristic
("Propaganda is a major form of manipulation by symbols" ).^[5]
Thus, propaganda is a special form of communication, which is studied
in communication research, and especially in media impact research,
focusing on media manipulation.^[6] Propaganda is a particular type of
communication characterized by distorting the representation of
reality.^[4]
Manipulation and media[edit]
Common media for transmitting propaganda messages include news reports,
government reports, historical revision, junk science, books, leaflets,
movies, social media, radio, television, and posters. Less common
nowadays are the cow post envelopes, examples of which have survived
from the time of the American Civil War. (Connecticut Historical
Society; Civil War Collections; Covers.) In the case of radio and
television, propaganda can exist on news, current-affairs or talk-show
segments, as advertising or public-service announcement "spots" or as
long-running advertorials. Propaganda campaigns often follow a
strategic transmission pattern to indoctrinate the target group. This
may begin with a simple transmission such as a leaflet dropped from a
plane or an advertisement. Generally these messages will contain
directions on how to obtain more information, via a web site, hot line,
radio program, etc. The strategy intends to initiate the individual
from information recipient to information seeker through reinforcement,
and then from information seeker to opinion leader through
indoctrination.^[7]
Information dissemination strategies only become propaganda strategies
when coupled with propagandistic messages. Identifying these messages
is a necessary prerequisite to study the methods by which those
messages are spread.
"Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth" by Viktor Deni. November
1920
Propaganda to urge immigrants to move to California, 1876
Psychological aspects[edit]
Some techniques are categorized, analyzed and interpreted
psychologically, within political psychology, especially mass
psychology,^[8] social psychology, and cognitive psychology, which
includes the study of cognitive distortions.
With regard to political and military conflicts, propaganda is seen as
part of psychological warfare and information warfare,^[9] which gain
particular importance in the era of hybrid warfare and
cyberwarfare.^[10]
Logic and rhetoric[edit]
Some techniques are classified as logical fallacies, because propaganda
uses arguments which may have psychological effects but which are
logically invalid.^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]
In rhetoric and dialectic, they are viewed as sophisms, ruses, and
eristic stratagems.
Specific techniques[edit]
Scholars have identified many standard techniques used in propaganda
and persuasion.^[16]
Ad hominem
A Latin phrase that has come to mean attacking one's opponent,
as opposed to attacking their arguments.
Ad nauseam
This uses tireless repetition of an idea. An idea, especially a
simple slogan, that is repeated enough times, may begin to be
taken as the truth. This approach is more effective alongside
the propagandist limiting or controlling the media.
Agenda setting
Agenda setting means the "ability [of the news media] to
influence the importance placed on the topics of the public
agenda".^[17] If a news item is covered frequently and
prominently, the audience will regard the issue as more
important.
Appeal to authority
Appeals to authority cite prominent figures to support a
position, idea, argument, or course of action.
Appeal to fear
Appeals to fear seek to build support by instilling anxieties
and panic in the general population, for example, Joseph
Goebbels exploited Theodore Kaufman's Germany Must Perish! to
claim that the Allies sought the extermination of the German
people.
Appeal to prejudice
Using loaded or emotive terms to attach value or moral goodness
to believing the proposition.
Bandwagon
Bandwagon and "inevitable-victory" appeals attempt to persuade
the target audience to join in and take the course of action
that "everyone else is taking."
+ Inevitable victory: invites those not already on the bandwagon
to join those already on the road to certain victory. Those
already or at least partially on the bandwagon are reassured
that staying aboard is their best course of action. (e.g.,
"The debate is over. Nearly everyone who matters agrees with
me.")
+ Join the crowd: This technique reinforces people's natural
desire to be on the winning side. This technique is used to
convince the audience that a program is an expression of an
irresistible mass movement and that it is in their best
interest to join.
"Getting What He Deserves" American anti-Catholic cartoon from Heroes
of the Fiery Cross 1928.
Beautiful people
The type of propaganda that deals with famous people or depicts
attractive, happy people. This suggests if people buy a product
or follow a certain ideology, they too will be happy or
successful. (This is used more in advertising for products,
instead of political reasons.) Usually for advertising rather
than political purposes, sexual arousal may also be used. For
example, a message promoting a brand of motorcycles to a male
target audience may also include sexually attractive bikini-clad
women within the advertisement, to make the product more
appealing to the audience by targeting sexual desires. However,
some evidence suggests that using sexual appeal to sell a
product may not succeed, as the target audience may focus too
much on the sexually appealing people in the advertisement
rather than the product itself.^[18]
Big lie
The repeated articulation of a complex of events that justify
subsequent action. The descriptions of these events have
elements of truth, and the "big lie" generalizations merge and
eventually supplant the public's accurate perception of the
underlying events. After World War I the German stab in the back
explanation of the cause of their defeat became a justification
for Nazi re-militarization and revanchism.
Black-and-white fallacy
Presenting only two choices, with the product or idea being
propagated as the better choice. (e.g., "You're either with us,
or against us....")
Cherry picking
Richard Crossman, the British Deputy Director of Psychological
Warfare Division (PWD) for the Supreme Headquarters Allied
Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) during the Second World War said "In
propaganda truth pays... It is a complete delusion to think of
the brilliant propagandist as being a professional liar. The
brilliant propagandist is the man who tells the truth, or that
selection of the truth which is requisite for his purpose, and
tells it in such a way that the recipient does not think he is
receiving any propaganda... [...] The art of propaganda is not
telling lies, but rather selecting the truth you require and
giving it mixed up with some truths the audience wants to
hear."^[19]
Classical conditioning
All vertebrates, including humans, respond to classical
conditioning. That is, if A is always present when B is present
and B causes a physical reaction (e.g. disgust, pleasure), then
when presented with object A in the absence of B, that same
reaction will be experienced.
Cognitive dissonance
People desire to be consistent. Suppose a pollster finds that a
certain group of people hates his candidate for senator but
loves actor A. They use actor A's endorsement of their candidate
to change people's minds because people cannot tolerate
inconsistency. They are forced to either dislike the actor or
like the candidate.
Common man
The "plain folks" or "common man" approach attempts to convince
the audience that the propagandist's positions reflect the
common sense of the people. It is designed to win the confidence
of the audience by communicating in the common manner and style
of the target audience. Propagandists use ordinary language and
mannerisms (and clothe their message in face-to-face and
audiovisual communications) in attempting to identify their
point of view with that of the average person. A common example
of this type of propaganda is a political figure, usually
running for a placement, in a backyard or shop doing daily
routine things. This image appeals to the common person. With
the plain folks device, the propagandist can win the confidence
of persons who resent or distrust foreign sounding, intellectual
speech, words, or mannerisms."^[20] For example, a politician
speaking to a Southern United States crowd might incorporate
words such as "Y'all" and other colloquialisms to create a
perception of belonging.
Cult of personality
A cult of personality arises when an individual uses mass media
to create an idealized and heroic public image, often through
unquestioning flattery and praise. The hero personality then
advocates the positions that the propagandist desires to
promote. For example, modern propagandists hire popular
personalities to promote their ideas and/or products.
Demonizing the enemy
Making individuals from the opposing nation, from a different
ethnic group, or those who support the opposing viewpoint appear
to be subhuman (e.g., the Vietnam War-era term "gooks" for
National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam aka Vietcong,
or "VC", soldiers), worthless, or immoral, through suggestion or
false accusations. Dehumanizing is also a term used synonymously
with demonizing, the latter usually serves as an aspect of the
former.
World War I poster by Winsor McCay, urging Americans to buy Liberty
Bonds
Demoralization
Propaganda towards an adversary to erode fighting spirit, and
encourage surrender or defection.
Dictat
This technique hopes to simplify the decision making process by
using images and words to tell the audience exactly what actions
to take, eliminating any other possible choices. Authority
figures can be used to give the order, overlapping it with the
appeal to authority technique, but not necessarily. The Uncle
Sam "I want you" image is an example of this technique.
Disinformation
The creation or deletion of information from public records, in
the purpose of making a false record of an event or the actions
of a person or organization, including outright forgery of
photographs, motion pictures, broadcasts, and sound recordings
as well as printed documents.
Divide and rule
Divide and rule in politics and sociology is gaining and
maintaining power by breaking up larger concentrations of power
into pieces that individually have less power than the one
implementing the strategy.
Door-in-the-face technique
Is used to increase a person's latitude of acceptance. For
example, if a salesperson wants to sell an item for $100 but the
public is only willing to pay $50, the salesperson first offers
the item at a higher price (e.g., $200) and subsequently reduces
the price to $100 to make it seem like a good deal.
Dysphemism
A dysphemism is an expression with a negative connotation. It is
the opposite of a euphemism.
Euphemism
A euphemism is a generally innocuous word or expression used in
place of one that may be found offensive or suggest something
unpleasant.
Euphoria
The use of an event that generates euphoria or happiness, or
using an appealing event to boost morale. Euphoria can be
created by declaring a holiday, making luxury items available,
or mounting a military parade with marching bands and patriotic
messages.
Exaggeration
An exaggeration (or hyperbole) occurs when the most fundamental
aspects of a statement are true, but only to a certain degree.
It is also seen as "stretching the truth" or making something
appear more powerful, meaningful, or real than it actually is.
Saying that a person ate 20 spring rolls at a party when they
actually ate 7 or 8 would be considered an exaggeration.
False accusations
False accusations can be in any of the following contexts:
informally in everyday life, quasi-judicially, or judicially.
Fear, uncertainty, and doubt
Sometimes abbreviated as FUD, an attempt to influence public
perception by disseminating negative and dubious/false
information designed to undermine the credibility of their
beliefs.
Firehose of falsehood
A propaganda technique in which a large number of messages are
broadcast rapidly, repetitively, and continuously over multiple
channels (such as news and social media) without regard for
truth or consistency.
Flag-waving
An attempt to justify an action on the grounds that doing so
will make one more patriotic, or in some way benefit a group,
country, or idea. The feeling of patriotism this technique
attempts to inspire may not necessarily diminish or entirely
omit one's capability for rational examination of the matter in
question.
The Finnish Maiden - personification of Finnish nationalism
Foot-in-the-door technique
Often used by recruiters and salesmen. For example, the
perpetrator walks up to the victim and pins a flower or gives a
small gift to the victim. The victim says thanks and now they
have incurred a psychological debt to the perpetrator. The
person eventually asks for a larger favor (e.g., a donation or
to buy something far more expensive). The unwritten social
contract between the victim and perpetrator causes the victim to
feel obligated to reciprocate by agreeing to do the larger favor
or buy the more expensive gift.
Framing (social sciences)
Framing is the social construction of a social phenomenon often
by mass media sources, political or social movements, political
leaders, or other actors and organizations. It is an inevitable
process of selective influence over the individual's perception
of the meanings attributed to words or phrases.
Gaslighting
Using persistent denial, misdirection, contradiction, and lying
to sow seeds of doubt in a target individual or group, hoping to
make them question their own memory, perception, sanity, and
norms.
Gish gallop
Bombarding a political opponent with obnoxiously complex
questions in rapid fire during a debate to make the opponent
appear to not know what they are talking about.
Glittering generalities
Glittering generalities are emotionally appealing words that are
applied to a product or idea, but present no concrete argument
or analysis. This technique has also been referred to as the PT
Barnum effect. (e.g., the advertising campaign slogan "Ford has
a better idea!")
Guilt by association or Reductio ad Hitlerum
This technique is used to persuade a target audience to
disapprove of an action or idea by suggesting that the idea is
popular with groups hated, feared, or held in contempt by the
target audience. Thus if a group that supports a certain policy
is led to believe that undesirable, subversive, or contemptible
people support the same policy, then the members of the group
may decide to change their original position. This is a form of
bad logic, where A is said to include X, and B is said to
include X, therefore, A = B.
Half-truth
A half-truth is a deceptive statement that includes some element
of truth. It comes in several forms: the statement might be
partly true, the statement may be totally true but only part of
the whole truth, or it may utilize some deceptive element, such
as improper punctuation, or double meaning, especially if the
intent is to deceive, evade, blame, or misrepresent the truth.
Information overload
"Information overload can have the same effect as secrecy and
certainly in the short term and for democracies today it might
be considered more effective."^[21] "When information overload
occurs, it is likely that a reduction in decision quality will
occur."^[22] "The glut of information generated by modern
technology [...] threatens to make its receivers passive.
Overload prompts disengagement."^[23]
Intentional vagueness
Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience may
supply its own interpretations. The intention is to move the
audience by use of undefined phrases, without analyzing their
validity or attempting to determine their reasonableness or
application. The intent is to cause people to draw their own
interpretations rather than simply being presented with an
explicit idea. In trying to "figure out" the propaganda, the
audience forgoes judgment of the ideas presented. Their
validity, reasonableness and application may still be
considered.
Labeling
A euphemism is used when the propagandist attempts to increase
the perceived quality, credibility, or credence of a particular
ideal. A dysphemism is used when the intent of the propagandist
is to discredit, diminish the perceived quality, or hurt the
perceived righteousness of the individual. By creating a
"label", "category", or "faction" of a population, it is much
easier to make an example of these larger bodies, because they
can uplift or defame the individual without actually incurring
legal-defamation. Labeling can be thought of as a sub-set of
guilt by association, another logical fallacy.^[24]
Latitudes of acceptance
If a person's message is outside the bounds of acceptance for an
individual and group, most techniques will engender
psychological reactance (simply hearing the argument will make
the message even less acceptable). There are two techniques for
increasing the bounds of acceptance. First, one can take an even
more extreme position that will make more moderate positions
seem more acceptable. This is similar to the door-in-the-face
technique. Alternatively, one can moderate one's own position to
the edge of the latitude of acceptance and then over time slowly
move to the position that was previously held.^[25]
"The Conquest or Arrival of Hernan Cortes in Veracruz", 1951, National
Palace, Mexico City. Diego Rivera's political murals depict a modern
interpretation of the Black Legend.
Loaded language
Specific words and phrases with strong emotional implications
are used to influence the audience, for example, using the word
reforms rather than a more neutral word like changes.
Love bombing
See also: Milieu control
Used to recruit members to a cult or ideology by having a group
of individuals cut off a person from their existing social
support and replace it entirely with members of the group who
deliberately bombard the person with affection in an attempt to
isolate the person from their prior beliefs and value system.
Lying and deception
Lying and deception can be the basis of many propaganda
techniques including Ad Hominem arguments, Big-Lie, Defamation,
Door-in-the-Face, Half-truth, Name-calling or any other
technique that is based on dishonesty or deception. For example,
many politicians have been found to frequently stretch or break
the truth.
Managing the news
According to Adolf Hitler, "The most brilliant propagandist
technique will yield no success unless one fundamental principle
is borne in mind constantly - it must confine itself to a few
points and repeat them over and over."^[26]^[27] This idea is
consistent with the principle of classical conditioning as well
as the idea of "Staying on Message."
Anti-Muslim propaganda in Germany produced during the Ottoman wars in
Europe, 16th century
Milieu control
An attempt to control the social environment and ideas through
the use of social pressure
Minimisation
Minimisation is the opposite of exaggeration. It is a type of
deception^[28] involving denial coupled with rationalization in
situations where complete denial is implausible.
Name-calling
Propagandists use the name-calling technique to incite fears and
arouse prejudices in their hearers in the intent that the bad
names will cause hearers to construct a negative opinion about a
group or set of beliefs or ideas that the propagandist wants
hearers to denounce. The method is intended to provoke
conclusions about a matter apart from impartial examinations of
facts. Name-calling is thus a substitute for rational,
fact-based arguments against an idea or belief on its own
merits.^[29]
Name-calling is the lowest level in Graham's hierarchy of disagreement.
Non sequitur
A type of logical fallacy, in which a conclusion is made out of
an argument that does not justify it. All invalid arguments can
be considered as special cases of non sequitur.
Obfuscation, intentional vagueness, confusion
Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience may
supply its own interpretations. The intention is to move the
audience by use of undefined phrases, without analyzing their
validity or attempting to determine their reasonableness or
application. The intent is to cause people to draw their own
interpretations rather than simply being presented with an
explicit idea. In trying to "figure out" the propaganda, the
audience forgoes judgment of the ideas presented. Their
validity, reasonableness and application may still be
considered.
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning involves learning through imitation. For
example, watching an appealing person buy products or endorse
positions teaches a person to buy the product or endorse the
position. Operant conditioning is the underlying principle
behind the ad nauseam, slogan and other repetition public
relations campaigns.
Oversimplification
Favorable generalities are used to provide simple answers to
complex social, political, economic, or military problems.
Illustration by Rev. Branford Clarke from Heroes of the Fiery Cross by
Bishop Alma White published by the Pillar of Fire Church 1928 in
Zarephath, NJ
Pensee unique
Enforced reduction of discussion by use of overly simplistic
phrases or arguments (e.g., "There is no alternative to war.")
Quotes out of context
Selective editing of quotes that can change meanings. Political
documentaries designed to discredit an opponent or an opposing
political viewpoint often use this technique.
Rationalization
Individuals or groups may use favorable generalities to
rationalize questionable acts or beliefs. Vague and pleasant
phrases are often used to justify such actions or beliefs.
Red herring
Presenting data or issues that, while compelling, are irrelevant
to the argument at hand, and then claiming that it validates the
argument.^[citation needed]
In 1807, William Cobbett wrote how he used red herrings to lay a false
trail, while training hunting dogs--an apocryphal story that was
probably the origin of the idiom.
Repetition
This is the repeating of a certain symbol or slogan so that the
audience remembers it. This could be in the form of a jingle or
an image placed on nearly everything in the picture/scene. This
also includes using subliminal phrases, images or other content
in a piece of propaganda.^[24]
Scapegoating
Assigning blame to an individual or group, thus alleviating
feelings of guilt from responsible parties and/or distracting
attention from the need to fix the problem for which blame is
being assigned.
Nationalist slogan "Brazil, love it or leave it", often used during the
Brazilian military dictatorship (1964-1985)
Slogans
A slogan is a brief, striking phrase that may include labeling
and stereotyping. Although slogans may be enlisted to support
reasoned ideas, in practice they tend to act only as emotional
appeals. Opponents of the US's invasion and occupation of Iraq
use the slogan "blood for oil" to suggest that the invasion and
its human losses was done to access Iraq's oil riches. On the
other hand, supporters who argue that the US should continue to
fight in Iraq use the slogan "cut and run" to suggest withdrawal
is cowardly or weak. Similarly, the names of the military
campaigns, such as "enduring freedom" or "just cause" can also
be considered slogans, devised to influence people.
Smears
A smear is an effort to damage or call into question someone's
reputation, by propounding negative propaganda. It can be
applied to individuals or groups.
Stereotyping, name calling or labeling
This technique attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by
labeling the object of the propaganda campaign as something the
target audience fears, hates, loathes, or finds undesirable. For
instance, reporting on a foreign country or social group may
focus on the stereotypical traits that the reader expects, even
though they are far from being representative of the whole
country or group; such reporting often focuses on the anecdotal.
In graphic propaganda, including war posters, this might include
portraying enemies with stereotyped racial features.
Straw man
A straw man argument is an informal fallacy based on
misrepresentation of an opponent's position. To "attack a straw
man" is to create the illusion of having refuted a proposition
by substituting a superficially similar proposition (the "straw
man"), and refuting it, without ever having actually refuted the
original position.
Testimonial
See also: Damaging quotation
Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context, especially
cited to support or reject a given policy, action, program, or
personality. The reputation or the role (expert, respected
public figure, etc.) of the individual giving the statement is
exploited. The testimonial places the official sanction of a
respected person or authority on a propaganda message. This is
done in an effort to cause the target audience to identify
itself with the authority or to accept the authority's opinions
and beliefs as its own.
"The Bulgarian Martyresses", 1877 painting by the Russian painter
Konstantin Makovsky depicting the rape of Bulgarian women by Ottoman
troops during the suppression of the April Uprising a year earlier,
served to mobilize public support for the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
waged with the proclaimed aim of liberating the Bulgarians.
Third party technique
See also: Soft power
Works on the principle that people are more willing to accept an
argument from a seemingly independent source of information than
from someone with a stake in the outcome. It is a marketing
strategy commonly employed by Public Relations (PR) firms, that
involves placing a premeditated message in the "mouth of the
media." The third party technique can take many forms, ranging
from the hiring of journalists to report the organization in a
favorable light, to using scientists within the organization to
present their perhaps prejudicial findings to the public.
Frequently, astroturf groups or front groups are used to deliver
the message.
Thought-terminating cliche
A commonly used phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used
to quell cognitive dissonance.
Transfer
Also known as association, this is a technique of projecting
positive or negative qualities (praise or blame) of a person,
entity, object, or value onto another to make the second more
acceptable or to discredit it. It evokes an emotional response,
which stimulates the target to identify with recognized
authorities. Often highly visual, this technique often utilizes
symbols (for example, the swastikas used in Nazi Germany,
originally a symbol for health and prosperity) superimposed over
other visual images.
Unstated assumption
This technique is used when the propaganda concept would seem
less credible if explicitly stated. The concept is instead
repeatedly assumed or implied.
Virtue words
See also: Transfer (propaganda)
These are words in the value system of the target audience that
produce a positive image when attached to a person or issue.
Peace, hope, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom, "The
Truth", etc. are virtue words. Many see religiosity as a virtue,
making associations to this quality effectively beneficial.
Whataboutism
Whataboutism is a variant of the tu quoque logical fallacy that
attempts to discredit an opponent's position by charging them
with hypocrisy without directly refuting or disproving their
argument, which is particularly associated with Soviet and
Russian propaganda. When criticisms were leveled at the Soviet
Union, the Soviet response would be "What about..." followed by
an event in the Western world.
See also[edit]
* Demonization
* Doublespeak
* Factoid
* List of cognitive biases
* Spin (politics)
* Outline of public relations
References[edit]
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Persuasion (in German), SAGE, ISBN 978-1-4129-0898-6, retrieved
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shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to
achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the
propagandist."
2. ^ Lasswell, Harold Dwight (1937): Propaganda Technique in the World
War. ISBN 0-262-62018-9, S. 214-222.
3. ^ ^a ^b Stanley B. Cunningham (2002), The Idea of Propaganda: A
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(link)
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BookRix, ISBN 978-3-7396-3631-3, retrieved 30 June 2019
15. ^ Valentin Zsifkovits (2005), Ethisch richtig denken und handeln
(in German), LIT Verlag Muenster, ISBN 978-3-8258-8509-0, retrieved
30 June 2019
16. ^ Cole, Robert, ed. (1998). Encyclopedia of Propaganda. Armonk, NY:
Sharpe Reference. ISBN 9780765680099. OCLC 37238860. Missing or
empty |title= (help)
17. ^ McCombs, M; Reynolds, A (2002). "News influence on our pictures
of the world". Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research.
doi:10.4324/9781410602428-5 (inactive 2020-11-09).CS1 maint: DOI
inactive as of November 2020 (link) closed access
18. ^ "Sex Doesn't Sell After All, Study Says". Bloomberg. 18 August
2015. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
19. ^ Scot Macdonald (2007). Propaganda and information warfare in the
twenty-first century: altered images and deception operations.
Taylor & Francis. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-415-77145-0.
20. ^ Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1. Washington DC:
Headquarters; Department of the Army. 1979.
21. ^ Briant, Emma (January 2015). Propaganda and counter-terrorism:
Strategies for global change. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 9781847799623.
22. ^ Speier, Cheri; Valacich, Joseph; Vessey, Iris (1999). "The
Influence of Task Interruption on Individual Decision Making: An
Information Overload Perspective". Decision Sciences. 30 (2):
337-360. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5915.1999.tb01613.x.
23. ^ Sennett, Richard. The Culture of the New Capitalism. Yale
University Press. p. 172.
24. ^ ^a ^b A Citizens Guide to Understanding Corporate Media
Propaganda Techniques^[unreliable source?]
25. ^ unacceptable message
26. ^ Joel H. Spring (2006). Pedagogies of globalization: the rise of
the educational security state. Psychology Press. p. 60.
ISBN 978-0-8058-5557-9.
27. ^ Hilmar Hoffmann; John Broadwin; Volker R. Berghahn (1997). The
triumph of propaganda: film and national socialism, 1933-1945.
Berghahn Books. p. 140. ISBN 978-1-57181-122-6.
28. ^ Guerrero, L., Anderson, P., Afifi, W. (2007). Close Encounters:
Communication in Relationships (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage
Publications.
29. ^ "PROPAGANDA". Ad Age. 15 September 2003.
Links to related articles
* v
* t
* e
Disinformation and misinformation
Types
* Alternative facts
* Big lie
* Bullshit
* Cherry picking
* Circular reporting
* Deception
* Doublespeak
* Euphemistic misspeaking
* Euromyth
* Factoid
* Fake news
+ online
* Fallacy
* False accusation
* False flag
* Fear, uncertainty, and doubt
* Gaslighting
* Half-truth
* Hoax
* Internet manipulation
* Media manipulation
* Potemkin village
* Post-truth politics
* Propaganda
* Quote mining
* Scientific fabrication
* Smearing
* Social bot
* Spin
* Truthiness
* View from nowhere
* Whataboutism
* Yellow journalism
Books
* Disinformation by Ion Mihai Pacepa
* Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy
* The KGB and Soviet Disinformation
* Who's Who in the CIA
Operations
and events
United States
1995 CIA disinformation controversy
* CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory
* Clockwork Orange plot
* The Freedom Fighter's Manual
* Habbush letter
* Information Operations Roadmap
* Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection
* Niger uranium forgeries
* Operation Shocker
* Yellow rain
Russia /
Soviet Union
Active Measures
K-1000 battleship
Operation INFEKTION
Operation Toucan
Pope Pius XII and Russia
Soviet influence on the peace movement
Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections
Seat 12
Trolls from Olgino
U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B
Russian web brigades
China
Chinese information operations
Germany
Funkspiel
Canada
Jihadunspun.com
Turkey
Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests
Czechoslovakia
Operation Neptune
Global
COVID-19 pandemic
Jonestown conspiracy theories
Strategy of tension
Opposition
Active Measures Working Group
Counter Misinformation Team
Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act
East StratCom Team
FactCheck.org
PolitiFact
Snopes.com
United States Information Agency
USAFacts
* v
* t
* e
Fallacies (list)
Formal
In propositional logic
* Affirming a disjunct
* Affirming the consequent
* Denying the antecedent
* Argument from fallacy
In quantificational logic
* Existential
* Illicit conversion
* Proof by example
* Quantifier shift
Syllogistic fallacy
* Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise
* Exclusive premises
* Existential
* Necessity
* Four terms
* Illicit major
* Illicit minor
* Negative conclusion from affirmative premises
* Undistributed middle
* Masked man
* Mathematical fallacy
Informal
Equivocation
* Equivocation
* False equivalence
* False attribution
* Quoting out of context
* Loki's Wager
* No true Scotsman
* Reification
Question-begging fallacies
* Circular reasoning / Begging the question
* Loaded language
+ Leading question
* Compound question / Loaded question / Complex question
* No true Scotsman
Correlative-based fallacies
* False dilemma
+ Perfect solution
* Denying the correlative
* Suppressed correlative
Illicit transference
* Composition
* Division
* Ecological
Secundum quid
* Accident
* Converse accident
Faulty generalization
* Anecdotal evidence
* Sampling bias
+ Cherry picking
+ McNamara
* Base rate / Conjunction
* Double counting
* False analogy
* Slothful induction
* Overwhelming exception
Vagueness / ambiguity
* Accent
* False precision
* Moving the goalposts
* Quoting out of context
* Slippery slope
* Sorites paradox
* Syntactic ambiguity
Questionable cause
* Animistic
+ Furtive
* Correlation implies causation
+ Cum hoc
+ Post hoc
* Gambler's
+ Inverse
* Regression
* Single cause
* Slippery slope
* Texas sharpshooter
Fallacies of relevance
Appeals to emotion
* Fear
* Flattery
* Novelty
* Pity
* Ridicule
* Think of the children
* In-group favoritism
* Invented here / Not invented here
* Island mentality
* Loyalty
* Parade of horribles
* Spite
* Stirring symbols
* Wisdom of repugnance
Genetic fallacies
Ad hominem
* Appeal to motive
* Association
+ Reductio ad Hitlerum
o Godwin's law
+ Reductio ad Stalinum
* Bulverism
* Poisoning the well
* Tone
* Tu quoque
* Whataboutism
* Authority
+ Accomplishment
+ Ipse dixit
+ Poverty / Wealth
* Etymology
* Nature
* Tradition / Novelty
+ Chronological snobbery
Appeals to consequences
* Argumentum ad baculum
* Wishful thinking
* Ad nauseam
+ Sealioning
* Argument to moderation
* Argumentum ad populum
* Appeal to the stone / Proof by assertion
* Ignoratio elenchi
* Argument from silence
* Invincible ignorance
* Moralistic / Naturalistic
* Motte-and-bailey fallacy
* Rationalization
* Red herring
+ Two wrongs make a right
* Special pleading
* Straw man
* Cliche
* I'm entitled to my opinion
* Category Category
* v
* t
* e
Media manipulation
Context
* Bias
* Crowd psychology
* Deception
* Dumbing down
* False balance
* Half-truths
* Machiavellianism
* Media
* Obfuscation
* Orwellian
* Persuasion
* Psychological manipulation
Activism
* Alternative media
* Boycott
* Call-out culture
* Cancel culture
* Civil disobedience
* Culture jamming
* Demonstrations
* Deplatforming
* Guerrilla communication
* Hacktivism
* Internet
* Media
* Occupations
* Petitions
* Protests
* Youth
Advertising
* Billboards
* False
* Infomercials
* Mobiles
* Modeling
* Radio
* Sex
* Slogans
* Testimonials
* TV
* Criticism of advertising
* Annoyance factor
* Censorship
* Media regulation
* Books
* Broadcast law
* Burying of scholars
* Catch and kill
* Corporate
* Cover-ups
* Euphemism
* Films
* Historical negationism
* Internet
* Political
* Religious
* Self
Hoaxing
* Alternative facts
* April Fools'
* Fake news
+ websites
* Fakelore
* Fictitious entries
* Forgery
* Gaslighting
* List
* Literary
* Racial
* Urban legend
* Virus
Marketing
* Branding
* Loyalty
* Product
* Product placement
* Publicity
* Research
* Word of mouth
News media
* Agenda-setting
* Broadcasting
* Circus
* Cycle
* False balance
* Infotainment
* Managing
* Narcotizing dysfunction
* Newspeak
* Pseudo-event
* Scrum
* Sensationalism
* Tabloid journalism
Political campaigning
* Advertising
* Astroturfing
* Attack ad
* Canvassing
* Character assassination
* Charm offensive
* Dog-whistle politics
* Election promises
* Lawn signs
* Manifestos
* Name recognition
* Negative
* Push polling
* Smear campaign
* Wedge issue
Propaganda
* Bandwagon
* Crowd manipulation
* Disinformation
* Fearmongering
* Framing
* Indoctrination
* Loaded language
* Lying press
* National mythology
* Rally 'round the flag effect
* Techniques
Psychological warfare
* Airborne leaflets
* False flag
* Fifth column
* Information (IT)
* Lawfare
* Political
* Public diplomacy
* Sedition
* Subversion
Public relations
* Cult of personality
* Doublespeak
* Non-apology apology
* Reputation management
* Slogans
* Sound bites
* Spin
* Transfer
* Understatement
* Weasel words
Sales
* Cold calling
* Door-to-door
* Pricing
* Product demonstrations
* Promotion
* Promotional merchandise
* Telemarketing
Related
* Media bias
+ United States
* Media concentration
* Media democracy
* Media ecology
* Media ethics
* Media franchise
* Media influence
* Media proprietor
* v
* t
* e
Propaganda techniques
* Ad hominem
* Appeal to fear
* Atrocity propaganda
* Bandwagon effect
* Big lie
* Blood libel
* Buzzword
* Censorship
* Cherry picking
* Code word
* Disinformation
* Dog-whistle politics
* Doublespeak
* Fake news
* Flag-waving
* Framing
* Gish gallop
* Glittering generality
* Historical negationism
* Historical revisionism
* Ideograph
* Indoctrination
* Lawfare
* Loaded language
* Newspeak
* Obscurantism
* Plain folks
* Propaganda of the deed
* Public relations
* Rally 'round the flag effect
* Slogan
* Spin
* Weasel word
* Whataboutism
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Categories:
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