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Playground
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Place with a specific design for children to be able to play there
This article is about an area for play. For other uses, see Playground
(disambiguation).
"Adventure Playground" redirects here. For the urban park in Berkeley,
California, see Adventure Playground (Berkeley). For the album by John
Surman, see Adventure Playground (album).
A modern-day playground
A playground, playpark, or play area is a place designed to provide an
environment for children that facilitates play, typically outdoors.
While a playground is usually designed for children, some are designed
for other age groups, or people with disabilities. A playground might
exclude children below a certain age.
Modern playgrounds often have recreational equipment such as the
seesaw, merry-go-round, swingset, slide, jungle gym, chin-up bars,
sandbox, spring rider, trapeze rings, playhouses, and mazes, many of
which help children develop physical coordination, strength, and
flexibility, as well as providing recreation and enjoyment and
supporting social and emotional development. Common in modern
playgrounds are play structures that link many different pieces of
equipment.
Playgrounds often also have facilities for playing informal games of
adult sports, such as a baseball diamond, a skating arena, a basketball
court, or a tether ball.
Public playground equipment installed in the play areas of parks,
schools, childcare facilities, institutions, multiple family dwellings,
restaurants, resorts, and recreational developments, and other areas of
public use.
A type of playground called a playscape is designed to provide a safe
environment for play in a natural setting.
[ ]
Contents
* 1 History
+ 1.1 Response to Mass motorisation
+ 1.2 Playgrounds in the Soviet Union
* 2 Design
* 3 Effects on child development
* 4 Funding
* 5 Safety
+ 5.1 Regulation
+ 5.2 Prevention strategies
+ 5.3 Playground injury
+ 5.4 Unintended consequences
* 6 Types
+ 6.1 Inclusive playgrounds
+ 6.2 Natural playgrounds
+ 6.3 Playgrounds for adults
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 External links
History
Main article: Children's street culture
Seesaw with a crowd of children playing
Through history, children played in their villages and neighbourhoods,
especially in the streets and lanes near their homes.^[1]^[2]^[3]
In the 19th century, developmental psychologists such as Friedrich
Froebel proposed playgrounds as a developmental aid, or to imbue
children with a sense of fair play and good manners. In Germany, a few
playgrounds were erected in connection to schools,^[4] the first
purpose-built public-access playground was opened in a park in
Manchester, England in 1859.^[5]
Response to Mass motorisation
Further information: Effects of the car on societies
Plaque to mark the spot where the Playground movement began in Nova
Scotia (1906), Local Council of Women of Halifax, Nova Scotia
However, it was only in the early 20th century, as the street lost its
role as the default public space and became planned for use by motor
cars, that momentum built to remove children from the new dangers and
confine them to segregated areas to play. In the United States,
organisations such as the National Highway Protective Society
highlighted the numbers killed by automobiles, and urged the creation
of playgrounds, aiming to free streets for vehicles rather than
children's play.^[6]^[7] The Outdoor Recreation League provided funds
to erect playgrounds on parkland, especially following the 1901
publication of a report on numbers of children being run down by cars
in New York City.^[8]
Young boys playing in a New York City street, 1909
In tandem with the new concern about the danger of roads, educational
theories of play, including by Herbert Spencer and John Dewey inspired
the emergence of the reformist playground movement, which argued that
playgrounds had educational value, improved attention in class,
enhanced physical health, and reduced truancy.^[9] Interventionist
programs such as by the child savers sought to move children into
controlled areas to limit 'delinquency'.^[2] Meanwhile, at schools and
settlement houses for poorer children with limited access to education,
health services and daycare, playgrounds were included to support these
institutions' goal of keeping children safe and out of trouble.^[8]
One of the first playgrounds in the United States was built in San
Francisco's Golden Gate Park in 1887.^[10] In 1906 the Playground
Association of America was founded and a year later Luther Gulick
became president.^[11] It later became the National Recreation
Association and then the National Recreation and Park Association.^[12]
Urging the need for playgrounds, former President Theodore Roosevelt
stated in 1907:
City streets are unsatisfactory playgrounds for children because
of the danger, because most good games are against the law,
because they are too hot in summer, and because in crowded
sections of the city they are apt to be schools of crime.
Neither do small back yards nor ornamental grass plots meet the
needs of any but the very small children. Older children who
would play vigorous games must have places especially set aside
for them; and, since play is a fundamental need, playgrounds
should be provided for every child as much as schools. This
means that they must be distributed over the cities in such a
way as to be within walking distance of every boy and girl, as
most children can not afford to pay carfare.^[13]
In post war London the landscape architect and children's rights
campaigner Lady Allen of Hurtwood introduced and popularised the
concept of the 'junk playground' - where the equipment was constructed
from the recycled junk and rubble left over from the Blitz. She
campaigned for facilities for children growing up in the new high-rise
developments in Britain's cities and wrote a series of illustrated
books on the subject of playgrounds, and at least one book on adventure
playgrounds, spaces for free creativity by children, which helped the
idea spread worldwide.^[14]
Playgrounds in the Soviet Union
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See also: Cold War playground equipment
Playgrounds were an integral part of urban culture in the USSR. In the
1970s and 1980s, there were playgrounds in almost every park in many
Soviet cities. Playground apparatus was reasonably standard all over
the country; most of them consisted of metallic bars with relatively
few wooden parts, and were manufactured in state-owned factories. Some
of the most common constructions were the carousel, sphere, seesaw,
rocket, bridge, etc.
Design
* Combination playground structure for small children; slides,
climbers (stairs in this case), playhouse
* The playground at Van Saun Park in Paramus, New Jersey
* A "pirate ship" in Pelle Hermanni park in Pori, Finland
* Playground in Yonkers, New York
* The Royal Oak, Monmouth playground
* A playground at a fast food restaurant in Jakarta, Indonesia
* Thematic playground with agricultural machine
* Playground slides at Zrinski Park in Cakovec, Croatia
* Playground at Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park
* A play area, titled Wonder World, at the departure lounge of
Suvarnabhumi International Airport, Bangkok.
* The "proton playground" at Fermilab includes a Bubble Chamber model
and encourages children to follow a path resembling protons in a
collider.
Playground design is influenced by the intended purpose and audience.
Separate play areas might be offered to accommodate very young
children. Single, large, open parks tend to not to be used by older
schoolgirls or less aggressive children, because there is little
opportunity for them to escape more aggressive children.^[15] By
contrast, a park that offers multiple play areas is used equally by
boys and girls.
Effects on child development
Professionals recognize that the social skills that children develop on
the playground often become lifelong skill sets that are carried
forward into their adulthood. Independent research concludes that
playgrounds are among the most important environments for children
outside the home. Most forms of play are essential for healthy
development, but free, spontaneous play--the kind that occurs on
playgrounds--is the most beneficial type of play.
Exciting, engaging and challenging playground equipment is important to
keep children happy while still developing their learning abilities.
These should be developed in order to suit different groups of children
for different stages of learning, such as specialist playground
equipment for nursery & pre-school children teaching them basic
numeracy & vocabulary, to building a child's creativity and imagination
with role play panels or puzzles.
Rope bridge for improving balance
There is a general consensus that physical activity reduces the risk of
psychological problems in children and fosters their
self-esteem.^[citation needed] The American Chief Medical Officer's
report (Department of Health, 2004), stated that a review of available
research suggests that the health benefits of physical activity in
children are predominantly seen in the amelioration of risk factors for
disease, avoidance of weight gain, achieving a peak bone mass and
mental well-being.
Exercise programmes "may have short term beneficial effects on self
esteem in children and adolescents"^[16] although high-quality trials
are lacking.^[16]
Commentators argue that the quality of a child's exercise experience
can affect their self-esteem. Ajzen TPB (1991) promotes the notion that
children's self-esteem is enhanced through the encouragement of
physical mastery and self-development. It can be seen that playgrounds
provide an ideal opportunity for children to master physical skills,
such as learning to swing, balance and climb. Personal development may
be gained through the enhancement of skills, such as playing,
communicating and cooperating with other children and adults in the
playground.
It can also be seen that public and private playgrounds act as a
preventative health measure amongst young people because they promote
physical activity at a stage in children's lives when they are active
and not yet at risk from opting out of physical activity.^[citation
needed]
Children have devised many playground games and pastimes. But because
playgrounds are usually subject to adult supervision and oversight,
young children's street culture often struggles to fully thrive there.
Research by Robin Moore^[17] concluded shown that playgrounds need to
be balanced with marginal areas that (to adults) appear to be derelict
or wasteground but to children they are areas that they can claim for
themselves, ideally a wooded area or field.
For many children, it is their favorite time of day when they get to be
on the playground for free time or recess. It acts as a release for
them from the pressures of learning during the day. They know that time
on the playground is their own time.^[citation needed]
A type of playground called a playscape can provide children with the
necessary feeling of ownership that Moore describes above. Playscapes
can also provide parents with the assurance of their child's safety and
wellbeing, which may not be prevalent in an open field or wooded area.
Funding
A playground under construction in Ystad, Sweden in 2016
In the UK, several organisations exist that help provide funding for
schools and local authorities to construct playgrounds. These include
the Biffa Award, which provides funding under the Small Grants Scheme;
Funding Central, which offers support for voluntary organisations and
social enterprises; and the Community Construction Fund, a flagship
programme by Norfolk County Council.^[18]
A playground being built for a homeowner's backyard as part of a
handyman project. Modern playgrounds can have many options besides
swingsets, including sandboxes, rope-climbs, tic-tac-toe games, a fort
with dormer roofs and a chimney, a slide, and other amenities.
Safety
Safety, in the context of playgrounds, is generally understood as the
prevention of injuries. Risk aversion and fear of lawsuits on the part
of the adults who design playgrounds prioritizes injury prevention
above other factors, such as cost or developmental benefit to the
users.^[19] It is important that children gradually develop the skill
of risk assessment, and a completely safe environment does not allow
that.
Sometimes the safety of playgrounds is disputed in school or among
regulators. Over at least the last twenty years, the kinds of equipment
to be found in playgrounds has changed, often towards safer equipment
built with plastic. For example, an older jungle gym might be
constructed entirely from steel bars, while newer ones tend to have a
minimal steel framework while providing a web of nylon ropes for
children to climb on. Playgrounds with equipment that children may fall
off often use rubber mulch on the ground to help cushion the
impact.^[20]
Playgrounds are also made differently for different age groups. Often
schools have a playground that is taller and more advanced for older
schoolchildren and a lower playground with less risk of falling for
younger children.
Safety discussions do not normally include an evaluation of the
unintended consequences of injury prevention, such as older children
who do not exercise at the playground because the playground is too
boring.^[21]
Safety efforts sometimes paradoxically increase the likelihood and
severity of injuries because of how people choose to use playground
equipment. For example, older children may choose to climb on the
outside of a "safe" but boring play structure, rather than using it the
way the designers intended. Similarly, rather than letting young
children play on playground slides by themselves, some injury-averse
parents seat the children on the adult's lap and go down the slide
together.^[22] This seems safer at first glance, but if the child's
shoe catches on the edge of the slide, this arrangement frequently
results in the child's leg being broken.^[22] If the child had been
permitted to use the slide independently, then this injury would not
happen, because when the shoe caught, the child would have stopped
sliding rather than being propelled down the slide by the adult's
weight.^[22]
Also concerning the safety of playgrounds is the material in which they
are built. Wooden playgrounds act as a more natural environment for the
children to play but can cause even more minor injuries. Slivers are
the main concern when building with wood material. Wet weather is also
a threat to children playing on wooden structures. Most woods are
treated and do not wear terribly fast, but with enough rain, wooden
playgrounds can become slippery and dangerous for children to be on.
Regulation
In the United States, the Consumer Product Safety Commission and the
American National Standards Institute have created a Standardized
Document and Training System for certification of Playground Safety
Inspectors. These regulations are nationwide and provide a basis for
safe playground installation and maintenance practices. ASTM F1487-07
deals with specific requirements regarding issues such as play ground
layout, use zones, and various test criteria for determining play
ground safety. ASTM F2373 covers public use play equipment for children
6-24 months old. This information can be applied effectively only by a
trained C.P.S.I. A National Listing of Trained Playground Safety
Inspectors is available for many states. A Certified Playground Safety
Inspector (CPSI) is a career that was developed by the National
Playground Safety Institute (NPSI) and is recognized nationally by the
National Recreation and Park Association or N.R.P.A. (Some information
sources offer interactive examples^[23] of playground equipment that
violates CPSC guidelines.)
In Australia, Standards Australia is responsible for the publication of
the playground safety Standards AS/NS4422, AS/NZS4486.1 and AS4685
Parts 1 to 6. The University of Technology Sydney is responsible for
the training and accreditation of playground inspectors.^[24] The
Register of Playground Inspectors Australia lists all the individuals
who have been certified to inspector playgrounds within Australia.^[25]
European Standards EN 1177 specifies the requirements for surfaces used
in playgrounds. For each material type and height of equipment it
specifies a minimum depth of material required.^[26] EN 1176 covers
playground equipment standards.^[27]^[28] In the UK, playground
inspectors can sit the examinations of the Register of Play Inspectors
International at the three required levels - routine, operational and
annual. Annual inspectors are able to undertake the post-installation
inspections recommended by EN 1176.
Prevention strategies
Because the majority of playground injuries are due to falls from
equipment, injury prevention efforts are primarily directed at reducing
the likelihood of a child falling and reducing the likelihood of a
severe injury if the child does fall. This is done by:
* reducing the maximum fall height of equipment, primarily by
reducing the overall height of anything a child might climb on or
into;
* reducing the likelihood of falling from equipment, through using
barriers, discouraging climbing, and making upper surfaces
inconvenient or uncomfortable for climbing or sitting on; and
* installing a more flexible surface under and around play equipment,
so that a child who falls is less likely to break a bone.
How effective these strategies are at preventing injuries is debated by
experts, because when playgrounds are made from padded materials,
children often take more risks.^[21]^[29]
Playground injury
Each year in the United States, emergency departments treat more than
200,000 children ages 14 and younger for playground-related
injuries.^[30]^[31] Approximately 156,040 (75.8%) of the 1999 injuries
occurred on equipment designed for public use; 46,930 (22.8%) occurred
on equipment designed for home use; and 2,880 (1.4%) occurred on
homemade playground equipment (primarily rope swings).
Percentage of injuries involving public equipment
* About 46% occurred in schools.
* About 31% occurred in public parks.
* About 10% occurred in commercial childcare centers.
* About 3% occurred in home childcare.
* About 3% occurred in apartment complexes.
* About 2% occurred in fast food restaurants.
* About 9% occurred in other locations.
From January 1990 to August 2000, CPSC received reports of 147 deaths
to children younger than 15 that involved playground equipment.
* 70% of those deaths occurred in home
* 30% of those deaths occurred in public use
Girls were involved in a slightly higher percentage of injuries (55%)
than were boys (45%).
Injuries to the head and face accounted for 49% of injuries to children
0-4, while injuries to the arm and hand accounted for 49% of injuries
to children ages 5-14. Approximately 15% of the injuries were
classified as severe, with 3% requiring hospitalization. The most
prevalent diagnoses were fractures (39%), lacerations (22%),
contusions/abrasions (20%), strains/sprains (11%).
For children ages 0-4, climbers (40%) had the highest incidence rates,
followed by slides (33%). For children ages 5-14, climbing equipment
(56%) had the highest incidence rates, followed by swings (24%). Most
injuries on public playground equipment were associated with climbing
equipment (53%), swings (19%), and slides (17%).
Falls to the surface was a contributing factor in 79% of all injuries.
On home equipment, 81% were associated with falls.
In 1995, playground-related injuries among children ages 14 and younger
cost an estimated $1.2 billion.^[32]
On public playgrounds, more injuries occur on climbers than on any
other equipment.^[31] On home playgrounds, swings are responsible for
most injuries.^[31]
Playgrounds in low-income areas have more maintenance-related hazards
than playgrounds in high-income areas. For example, playgrounds in
low-income areas had significantly more trash, rusty play equipment,
and damaged fall surfaces.^[33]
Unintended consequences
As a result of what some experts say is overprotectiveness driven by a
fear of lawsuits, playgrounds have been designed to be, or at least to
appear, excessively safe.^[21] This overprotectiveness may protect the
playground owner from lawsuits, but it appears to result in a decreased
sense of achievement and increased fears in children.^[21]
The equipment limitations result in the children receiving less value
from the play time.^[21] The enclosed, padded, constrained, low
structures prevent the child from taking risks and developing a sense
of mastery over his or her environment. Successfully taking a risk is
empowering to children. For example, a child climbing to the top of a
tall jungle gym feels happy about successfully managing the challenging
climb to the top, and he experiences the thrill of being in a
precarious, high position. By contrast, the child on a low piece of
equipment, designed to reduce the incidence of injuries from falls,
experiences no such thrill, sense of mastery, or accomplishment.
Additionally, a lack of experience with heights as a child is
associated with increased acrophobia (fear of heights) in adults.^[21]
The appearance of safety encourages unreasonable risk-taking in
children, who might take more reasonable risks if they correctly
understood that it is possible to break a bone on the soft surfaces
under most modern equipment.^[21]^[29]
Finally, the playground that is designed to appear low-risk is boring,
especially to older children.^[21] As a result, they tend to seek out
alternative play areas, which may be very unsafe.^[21]
Risk management is an important life skill, and risk aversion in
playgrounds is unhelpful in the long term. Experts studying child
development such as Tim Gill have written about the over-protective
bias in provision for children, particularly with playgrounds.^[29]
Instead of a constructed playground, allowing children to play in a
natural environment such as open land or a park is sometimes
recommended; children gain a better sense of balance playing on uneven
ground, and learn to interpret the complexity and signals of nature
more effectively.^[29]
Types
Playgrounds can be:
* Built by collaborative support of corporate and community resources
to achieve an immediate and visible "win" for their neighborhood.
* Public, free of charge, like at most rural elementary schools
* Connected to a business, for customers only, e.g., at McDonald's,
IKEA, and Chuck E. Cheese's.
* For-Profit business with an entrance fee, like those at the (now
defunct) Discovery Zone, Zoom Zoom's Indoor Playground in Ancaster,
Ontario, Jungle Jam Indoor Playground, and Kidtastic Indoor
Playground.
* Non-Profit organizations for edutainment as children's museums and
science centers, some charge admission, some are free.
Inclusive playgrounds
Universally designed playgrounds are created to be accessible to all
children. There are three primary components to a higher level of
inclusive play:
* physical accessibility;
* age and developmental appropriateness; and
* sensory-stimulating activity.
Some children with disabilities or developmental differences do not
interact with playgrounds in the same way as typical children. A
playground designed without considering these children's needs may not
be accessible or interesting to them.
Most efforts at inclusive playgrounds have been aimed at accommodating
wheelchair users. For example, rubber paths and ramps replace sand pits
and steps, and some features are placed at ground level. Efforts to
accommodate children on the autism spectrum, who may find playgrounds
overstimulating or who may have difficulty interacting with other
children, have been less common.^[34]
Natural playgrounds
Main article: Playscape
"Natural playgrounds" are play environments that blend natural
materials, features, and indigenous vegetation with creative landforms
to create purposely complex interplays of natural, environmental
objects in ways that challenge and fascinate children and teach them
about the wonders and intricacies of the natural world while they play
within it.
Play components may include earth shapes (sculptures), environmental
art, indigenous vegetation (trees, shrubs, grasses, flowers, lichens,
mosses), boulders or other rock structures, dirt and sand, natural
fences (stone, willow, wooden), textured pathways, and natural water
features.
* A natural playground sandbox provides a place for passive and
creative play
* Jacques-Laurent Agasse: The Playground, 1830
* Playground in Turin, Italy on a rainy day in 2019
* Wheelchair-accessible public playground in the US in 2007
* Playground incorporating aquatic plant life in Sawara, Japan
* A wooden castle at playground in Rakvere, Estonia
* Playground in Ystad, Sweden in 2019. The colorful surface is soft
rubber asphalt.
* Hanging artificial fruit at a playground in Sri Lanka
* A water-based playground in Germany
Playgrounds for adults
Further information: Outdoor gym and Fitness trail
China and some countries in Europe have playgrounds designed for
adults.^[35] These are outdoor spaces that feature fitness equipment
designed for use primarily by adults, such as chin-up bars.
Playgrounds for older adults are popular in China.^[36] Seniors are the
primary users of public playgrounds in China. These playgrounds are
usually in a smaller, screened area, which may reduce the feeling of
being watched or judged by others.^[36] They often have adult-sized
equipment that helps seniors stretch, strengthen muscles, and improve
their sense of balance.^[36] Similar playgrounds for adults have been
built in other countries.^[36] Berlin's Preussenpark for example is
designed for people aged 70 or higher.
See also
* Adventure playground
* Chin-up bar
* Children's street culture
* Children Youth and Environments Journal
* Cold War playground equipment
* Commercial Playgrounds
* Empower playgrounds
* Friendship bench
* Home zone/Play street
* Obstacle course
* Playground game
* Playground song
* Playground Surfacing
* Playscape
* Playtime
* Playwork
* Recess (break)
* Ropes course
* Rubber Mulch
References
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Playground". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1
July 2012. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
36. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Traverso, Vittoria (29 October 2019). "The cities
designing playgrounds for the elderly". BBC. Retrieved 2019-11-26.
* Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behaviour. Organisational
Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-211.
* Biddle, S. J., & Mutrie, N. (2001). Psychology of physical
activity: Determinants, well-being and interventions. Abingdon:
Routledge.
* Ekeland, E., Heian, M., & Hagen, K.B. (2005). Can exercise improve
self-esteem in children and young people? A systematic review of
randomised controlled trials. British Journal of Sports Medicine,
39, 792-798.
* Department of Health (2004). The benefits of regular physical
activity. A report from the Chief Medical Officer. At least five
days a week: evidence on the impact of physical activity and its
relationship to health. Retrieved September 25, 2006 from
http://www.dh.gov/PublicationsAndStatistics/Publications/^[permanen
t dead link]
PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidanceArticles
/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=40809948chk=1Ft1Of.
External links
Look up playground in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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* National Program for Playground Safety - U.S. clearinghouse for
playground safety information
* The Overprotected Kid - article about adventure playgrounds in The
Atlantic
* Benefits of living within walking distance of a park at The New
York Times
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