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Link Trainer

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   Early flight simulator

   Link trainer in use at a British Fleet Air Arm station in 1943

   The term Link Trainer, also known as the "Blue box" and "Pilot
   Trainer"^[1] is commonly used to refer to a series of flight simulators
   produced between the early 1930s and early 1950s by Link Aviation
   Devices, founded and headed by Ed Link, based on technology he
   pioneered in 1929 at his family's business in Binghamton, New York.
   During World War II, they were used as a key pilot training aid by
   almost every combatant nation.

   The original Link Trainer was created in 1929 out of the need for a
   safe way to teach new pilots how to fly by instruments. Ed Link used
   his knowledge of pumps, valves and bellows gained at his father's Link
   Piano and Organ Company to create a flight simulator that responded to
   the pilot's controls and gave an accurate reading on the included
   instruments. More than 500,000 US pilots were trained on Link
   simulators,^[2] as were pilots of nations as diverse as Australia,
   Canada, Germany, New Zealand, United Kingdom, Israel, Japan, Pakistan,
   and the USSR. Following WWII, Air Marshall Robert Leckie (wartime RAF
   Chief of Staff) said "The Luftwaffe met its Waterloo on all the
   training fields of the free world where there was a battery of Link
   Trainers".^[3]

   The Link Flight Trainer has been designated as a Historic Mechanical
   Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical
   Engineers.^[2] The Link Company, now the Link Simulation & Training
   division of L3Harris Technologies, continues to make aerospace
   simulators.^[4]
   [ ]

Contents

     * 1 History
          + 1.1 Origins
          + 1.2 World War II
     * 2 Link Trainer models
          + 2.1 Pilot Maker
          + 2.2 AN-T-18
               o 2.2.1 AN-T-18 design and construction
     * 3 Variants
          + 3.1 "Blue Box"
          + 3.2 Postwar
     * 4 Surviving trainers
     * 5 See also
     * 6 References
          + 6.1 Notes
          + 6.2 Bibliography
     * 7 Further reading
     * 8 External links

History[edit]

Origins[edit]

   Edwin Link had developed a passion for flying in his boyhood years, but
   was not able to afford the high cost of flying lessons. So, upon
   leaving school in 1927, he started developing a simulator. The project
   took him 18 months. His first pilot trainer, which debuted in 1929,
   resembled an overgrown toy airplane from the outside, with short wooden
   wings and fuselage mounted on a universal joint. Organ bellows from the
   Link organ factory, the business his family owned and operated in
   Binghamton, New York, driven by an electric pump, made the trainer
   pitch and roll as the pilot worked the controls.^[5]

   Link's first military sales came as a result of the Air Mail scandal,
   when the Army Air Corps took over carriage of U.S. Air Mail. Twelve
   pilots were killed in a 78-day period due to their unfamiliarity with
   Instrument Flying Conditions. The large scale loss of life prompted the
   Air Corps to look at a number of solutions, including Link's pilot
   trainer. The Air Corps was given a stark demonstration of the potential
   of instrument training when, in 1934, Link flew in to a meeting in
   conditions of fog that the Air Corps evaluation team regarded as
   unflyable.^[5] As a result, the Air Corps ordered the first six pilot
   trainers on 23 June 1934 for $3,500 each. In 1936, the more advanced
   Model C was introduced.^[6]^[7]

   American Airlines became the first commercial airline to purchase a
   Link trainer in 1937.^[8] Prior to World War II, Link trainers were
   also sold to the U.S. Navy, Civil Aeronautics Administration, Germany,
   Japan, England, Russia, France, and Canada.^[9]

World War II[edit]

   Link Trainer at Freeman Field, Seymour, Indiana. Freeman Field was a US
   Army Air Force field in World War II.

   Link and his company had struggled through the Depression years, but
   after gaining Air Corps interest the business expanded rapidly and
   during World War II, the AN-T-18 Basic Instrument Trainer, known to
   tens of thousands of fledgling pilots as the "Blue Box" (although it
   was painted in different colors in other countries), was standard
   equipment at every air training school in the United States and Allied
   nations. During the war years, Link produced over 10,000 Blue Boxes,
   turning one out every 45 minutes.^[4]^[3]

   During World War II, Link trainers were sometimes run by
   women.^[10]^[11]

Link Trainer models[edit]

   Several models of Link Trainers were sold in a period ranging from 1934
   through to the late 1950s. These trainers kept pace with the increased
   instrumentation and flight dynamics of aircraft of their period, but
   retained the electrical and pneumatic design fundamentals pioneered in
   the first Link.

   Trainers built from 1934 up to the early 1940s had a color scheme that
   featured a bright blue fuselage and yellow wings and tail sections.
   These wings and tail sections had control surfaces that actually moved
   in response to the pilot's movement of the rudder and stick. However,
   many trainers built during mid to late World War II did not have these
   wings and tail sections due to material shortages and critical
   manufacturing times.

Pilot Maker[edit]

   The Pilot Maker was Link's first model. It was an evolution of his 1929
   prototype and was used in Mr. Link's Link Flying School and later by
   other flying schools. During the Depression years versions of the Pilot
   Maker were also sold to amusement parks. In fact, his patent (US1825462
   A) for the Pilot Maker was titled Combination Training Device for
   Student Aviators and Entertainment Apparatus.^[3]

AN-T-18[edit]

   The most prolific version of the Link Trainer was the AN-T-18 (Army
   Navy Trainer model 18), which was a slightly enhanced version of Link's
   C3 model. This model was also produced in Canada for both the Royal
   Canadian Air Force and the Royal Air Force with a somewhat modified
   instrument panel, where its model designation was D2.^[12] It was used
   by many countries for pilot training before and during the Second World
   War, especially in the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan.

   The AN-T-18 featured rotation through all three axes, effectively
   simulated all flight instruments, and modeled common conditions such as
   pre-stall buffet, overspeed of the retractable undercarriage, and
   spinning. It was fitted with a removable opaque canopy, which could be
   used to simulate blind flying, and was particularly useful for
   instrument and navigation training.

AN-T-18 design and construction[edit]

   The instrument panel of the Link Trainer at the Shuttleworth Collection
   in the UK

   The AN-T-18 consists of two main components:

   The first major component is the trainer, which consists of a wooden
   box approximating the shape of a fuselage and cockpit, connected via a
   universal joint to a base.^[13] Inside the cockpit is a single pilot's
   seat, primary and secondary aircraft controls, and a full suite of
   flight instruments. The base contains several complicated sets of
   air-driven bellows to create movement, a vacuum pump that both drives
   the bellows and provides input to a number of aircraft instruments, a
   device known as a Telegon oscillator that supplies an 85 VAC 800 Hz
   sinusoidal reference signal to the remaining pilot and instructor
   instruments, and a wind drift analog computer.

   The second major component is an external instructor's desk, which
   consists of a large map table; a duplicate display of the pilot's main
   flight instruments; and the Automatic Recorder, a motorized ink marker
   also known as "the crab". The crab is driven by the Wind Drift computer
   and moves across the glass surface of the map table, plotting the
   pilot's track. The desk includes circuits for the pilot and instructor
   to communicate with each other via headphones and microphones, and
   controls for the instructor to alter wind direction and speed.^[14]

   The AN-T-18 has three main sets of bellows. One set of four bellows
   (fore and aft and both sides of the cockpit) controls movement about
   the pitch and roll axes. A very complicated set of bellows at the front
   of the fuselage controls movement about the yaw axis. This Turning
   Motor is a complex set of 10 bellows, two crank shafts and various
   gears and pulleys derived from early player piano motors. The Turning
   Motor can rotate the entire fuselage through 360-degree circles at
   variable rates of speed. A set of electrical slip ring contacts in the
   lower base compartment supplies electrical continuity between the fixed
   base and the movable fuselage.

   The third set of bellows simulates vibration, such as stall
   buffet.^[15] Both the trainer and the instructor's station are powered
   from standard 110VAC/240VAC power outlets via a transformer, with the
   bulk of internal wiring being low voltage. Simulator logic is all
   analog and is based around vacuum tubes.

Variants[edit]

   Pilot Maker
          First production model. Development of 1929 prototype.^[citation
          needed]

"Blue Box"[edit]

   A
          Procedural trainer that included only basic instruments.^[16]

   C
          Known as the C-2 by the United States Army Air Forces.^[17]
          Added 10 advanced instruments, radio communication with an
          instructor, cockpit lights, and automatic course recording.^[6]

   C-2
          Commercial version not used by the military.^[17]

   C-3
          Used by the United States Army Air Forces.^[17] Includes
          automatic wind drift device and radio simulator.^[18]

   C-5
          Used by the United States Army Air Forces.^[17] Includes
          automatic wind drift device and actual radio equipment.^[18]

   C-8
          Developed in 1945 from the North American T-6 Texan with more
          instrumentation than previous versions. Known as the 1-CA-1 by
          the U.S. Navy and the Model F.^[12]

   D
          Export version.^[17]

   D-1
          Used by the British military.^[17]

   D-2
          Used by the British military.^[17] Manufactured in Canada.^[12]

   D4
          Used by the British military. Built under license in England by
          Air Trainers Ltd of Aylesbury.^[19]

   E
          Commercial version not used by the military.^[17]

   E Sp.
          Slight modification for Army and Navy use. Known as the C-4 by
          the United States Army Air Forces.^[17]

   E-1
          Used by the United States Army Air Forces.^[17]

   E-2
          Used by the United States Army Air Forces.^[17]

   AN-2550-1
          Developed from the C-3, it added landing gear, propeller pitch
          and flap controls.^[12] Also known as the AN-T-18.^[17]

Postwar[edit]

   D4 Mk II
          Modification of the D4 to represent the BAC Jet Provost.^[20]

   Model 45
          Advanced version with instruments similar to T-6.^[21]^[22]

Surviving trainers[edit]

   Main article: List of surviving Link Trainers

   As of 2022^[update], many Link Trainers survive and are exhibited.

See also[edit]

     * Aviation safety
     * Barany chair
     * Flight simulator
     * List of Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmarks
     * Greater Binghamton Airport Edwin A. Link Field

References[edit]

Notes[edit]

    1. ^ Kelly 1970, p. 33.
    2. ^ ^a ^b De Angelo, Joseph (10 June 2000). "The Link Flight Trainer"
       (PDF). ASME. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
    3. ^ ^a ^b ^c Van Hoek, Susan; Link, Marion Clayton (1993). From Sky
       to Sea, A Story of Edwin Link (2nd ed.). Flagstaff, AZ: Best
       Publishing Co. ISBN 0941332276.
    4. ^ ^a ^b "Link Company." Archived 9 August 2012 at the Wayback
       Machine link.com. Retrieved: 20 February 2010.
    5. ^ ^a ^b "Fact Sheet". National Museum of the US Air Force. Archived
       from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
    6. ^ ^a ^b Hancock Cameron, Rebecca (1999). Training to Fly: Military
       Flight Training, 1907-1945 (PDF). Air Force History and Museums
       Program. Retrieved 3 November 2019.
    7. ^ "New Link Trainer". Aviation. Vol. 35, no. 9. McGraw-Hill
       Publishing Company. September 1936. pp. 37, 40. Retrieved 16 August
       2021.
    8. ^ Page, Ray L. "Brief History of Flight Simulation": 4.
       CiteSeerX 10.1.1.132.5428. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires
       |journal= (help)
    9. ^ McIntosh, David M. (April 1988). "The Evolution of Instrument
       Flying in the U.S. Army" (PDF). Defense Technical Information
       Center. p. 25. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2019.
       Retrieved 29 January 2019.
   10. ^ "Corinne Phillips Heads Colonnade Link Department", Embry-Riddle
       Fly Paper, Embry-Riddle Company, vol. VI, no. 17, p. 4, 13 August
       1943, retrieved 3 November 2019
   11. ^ BIGGERSTAFF, VALERIE. "Carolyn Thompson, WWII Link Training
       Instructor". Appen Media. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
   12. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Jaspers, Henrik (27 May 2004). "RESTORING AND
       OPERATING HISTORICAL AVIATION TRAINERS" (PDF). Wanadoo. Archived
       from the original (PDF) on 9 December 2004. Retrieved 28 January
       2019.
   13. ^ Kelly 1970, pp. 70-71.
   14. ^ Kelly 1970, pp. 65-68.
   15. ^ Kelly 1970, pp. 65-66.
   16. ^ McIntosh, David M. (April 1988). "The Evolution of Instrument
       Flying in the U.S. Army" (PDF). Defense Technical Information
       Center. p. 26. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2019.
       Retrieved 29 January 2019.
   17. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ^i ^j ^k ^l "Illustrated Parts Catalog
       for Link Instrument Flying Trainers" (PDF). TechWorks. 1 June 1943.
       Retrieved 28 January 2019.
   18. ^ ^a ^b Technical Manual: Instrument Trainer Maintenance. War
       Department. 29 December 1942. p. 3. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
   19. ^ "Link Instrument Flying Trainer Type D4" (PDF). Trenchard Museum
       RAF Halton. Trenchard Museum. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
   20. ^ "Flying Training Area". Norfolk and Suffolk Aviation Museum.
       Retrieved 14 May 2017.
   21. ^ Fountain, Paul (May 1947). "The Mighty Link". Flying. Vol. 40,
       no. 5. Chicago, Illinois: Ziff-Davis Publishing Company. pp. 40-42,
       90. Retrieved 3 November 2019.
   22. ^ "New Model of Link Trainer Simulates All Actual Flight
       Characteristics of Airplane". Binghamton Press. 1 February 1945.
       p. 5. Retrieved 4 August 2020.

Bibliography[edit]

     *

   Kelly, Lloyd L. (1970). The Pilot Maker. Interviewed by Parke, Robert
   B. (First ed.). New York: Grosset & Dunlap. ISBN 0-448-02226-5. as told
   to Robert B. Parke

     Van Hoek, Susan; Link, Marion Clayton (1993). From Sky to Sea: A
   Story of Edwin A. Link (2nd ed.). Best Publishing Co. ISBN 0941332276.

Further reading[edit]

     *

   Armstrong, Sam (6 February 1938). "Learning 'Blind Flying' Without
   Leaving the Ground". St. Louis Post Dispatch. p. 3. Retrieved 9
   November 2020.

     Flexman, Ralph E.; Matheny, William G.; Brown, Edward L. (1950),
   "Evaluation of the School Link and Special Methods of Instruction in a
   Ten-Hour Private Pilot Flight-Training Program", University of Illinois
   Bulletin, University of Illinois, Urbana, 47 (80)

     Fountain, Paul (May 1947). "The Mighty Link". Flying. pp. 40-42, 90,
   92. Retrieved 5 January 2021.

     Jeon, Chihyung (January 2015). "The Virtual Flier: The Link Trainer,
   Flight Simulation, and Pilot Identity". Technology and Culture. 56 (1):
   28-53. doi:10.1353/tech.2015.0017. ISSN 1097-3729. PMID 26334696.
   S2CID 2062879. Retrieved 5 January 2021.

     Zweng, Charles (1948). Link Instructor Manual. North Hollywood,
   California: Pan American Navigation Service. Retrieved 12 June 2020.

External links[edit]

   Wikimedia Commons has media related to Link Trainer.

     * The Link Company (now part of L-3 Harris)
     * Edwin Link Bio
     * Link Trainer History

     * v
     * t
     * e

   Australian Defence Force aircraft serial-number prefixes

   Italics indicate prefixes not used.

   RAAF Series One
   1921-34

     * A1 DH.9A
     * A2 S.E.5
     * A3 504
     * A4 Pup
     * A5 Wapiti
     * A6 DH.9
     * A7 Cirrus Moth
     * A8 DH.50A
     * A9 Seagull
     * A10 IIID
     * A11 Southampton
     * A12 Bulldog

   RAAF Series Two
   1935-63

     * A1
     * A2
     * A3
     * A4
     * A5
     * A6
     * A7
     * A8
     * A9
     * A10
     * A11
     * A12
     * A13
     * A14
     * A15
     * A16
     * A17
     * A18
     * A19
     * A20
     * A21
     * A22
     * A23
     * A24
     * A25
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     * A27
     * A28
     * A29
     * A30
     * A30
     * A31
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     * A33
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     * A48
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     * A52
     * A53
     * A54
     * A55
     * A56
     * A57
     * A58
     * A59
     * A60
     * A61
     * A62
     * A63
     * A64
     * A65
     * A66
     * A67
     * A68 (I)
     * A68 (II)
     * A69
     * A70
     * A71
     * A72
     * A73
     * A74
     * A75
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     * A77
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     * A81
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     * A91
     * A92
     * A93
     * A94
     * A95
     * A96
     * A97
     * A98
     * A99
     * A100

   RAN Series^1

     * N1 Firefly
     * N2 Dakota
     * N3 Gannet
     * N4 Sea Venom
     * N5 Sycamore
     * N6 Vampire
     * N7 Wessex
     * N8 Scout
     * N9 Iroquois
     * N10 Quail
     * N11 Jindivik
     * N12 Tracker
     * N13 Skyhawk
     * N14 MB-326
     * N15 HS 748
     * N16 Sea King

   RAAF Series Three
   Tri-Service series
   1964-present

     * A1 Sioux
     * A2 Iroquois
     * A3 Mirage III
     * A4 Caribou
     * A5 Alouette III
     * A6 Viscount
     * A7 MB-326
     * A8 F-111
     * A9 Orion
     * A10 HS 748
     * A11 Falcon 20
     * A12 One-Eleven
     * A13 Link Trainer
     * A14 PC-6
     * A15 Chinook
     * A16
     * A17/N17 Kiowa
     * A18 Nomad
     * A19 CT/4
     * A20 707
     * A21 Hornet
     * A22/N22 Ecureuil
     * A23 PC-9
     * N24 Seahawk
     * A25 Black Hawk
     * A26 Falcon 900
     * A27 Hawk
     * N28 Kalkara
     * N29 Seasprite
     * A30 Wedgetail
     * A31
     * A32 B200 and B300 King Air
     * A33
     * A34 C-27J Spartan
     * A35 F-35A Lightning II
     * A36 BBJ1
     * A37 Challenger 604
     * A38 Tiger
     * A39 KC-30A MRTT
     * A40/N40 MRH-90
     * A41 Globemaster III
     * N42 A109E
     * A43 RQ-7B Shadow
     * A44 F/A-18F Super Hornet
     * A45 Heron
     * A46 EA-18G Growler
     * A47 P-8 Poseidon
     * N48 MH-60R Seahawk
     * N49 Bell 429
     * A51
     * N52 EC135 T2+
     * A53 1900C
     * A54 PC-21
     * A55
     * A56 Falcon
     * A69 Phantom

   Lists

     * Aircraft of the RAAF
     * Aircraft of the RAN
     * Aircraft of the Australian Army

   ^1 Prior to adoption of Tri-Service prefixes.

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