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Liquid-crystal display

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   Display that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals
   "LCD" redirects here. For other uses, see LCD (disambiguation).
   Not to be confused with LED.

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   Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display
    1. Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it
       enters.
    2. Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes
       will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is switched
       ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth.
    3. Twisted nematic liquid crystal.
    4. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal
       ridges to line up with the horizontal filter.
    5. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal axis to block/pass light.
    6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD,
       this layer is replaced or complemented with a light source.)

   A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other
   electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating
   properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals
   do not emit light directly^[1] but instead use a backlight or reflector
   to produce images in color or monochrome.^[2] LCDs are available to
   display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or
   fixed images with low information content, which can be displayed or
   hidden. For instance: preset words, digits, and seven-segment displays,
   as in a digital clock, are all good examples of devices with these
   displays. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary
   images are made from a matrix of small pixels, while other displays
   have larger elements. LCDs can either be normally on (positive) or off
   (negative), depending on the polarizer arrangement. For example, a
   character positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering on a
   background that is the color of the backlight, and a character negative
   LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same
   color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs
   to give them their characteristic appearance.

   LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD
   televisions, computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit
   displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common
   in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such as digital
   cameras, watches, digital clocks, calculators, and mobile telephones,
   including smartphones. LCD screens are also used on consumer
   electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices and
   clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode-ray tube (CRT)
   displays in nearly all applications. LCD screens are available in a
   wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD
   screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to very
   large television receivers. LCDs are slowly being replaced by OLEDs,
   which can be easily made into different shapes, and have a lower
   response time, wider color gamut, virtually infinite color contrast and
   viewing angles, lower weight for a given display size and a slimmer
   profile (because OLEDs use a single glass or plastic panel whereas LCDs
   use two glass panels; the thickness of the panels increases with size
   but the increase is more noticeable on LCDs) and potentially lower
   power consumption (as the display is only "on" where needed and there
   is no backlight). OLEDs, however, are more expensive for a given
   display size due to the very expensive electroluminescent materials or
   phosphors that they use. Also due to the use of phosphors, OLEDs suffer
   from screen burn-in and there is currently no way to recycle OLED
   displays, whereas LCD panels can be recycled, although the technology
   required to recycle LCDs is not yet widespread. Attempts to maintain
   the competitiveness of LCDs are quantum dot displays, marketed as SUHD,
   QLED or Triluminos, which are displays with blue LED backlighting and a
   Quantum-dot enhancement film (QDEF) that converts part of the blue
   light into red and green, offering similar performance to an OLED
   display at a lower price, but the quantum dot layer that gives these
   displays their characteristics can not yet be recycled.

   Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they rarely suffer image
   burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time,
   e.g., the table frame for an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign.
   LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence.^[3] The LCD screen
   is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT
   can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in
   battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than a CRT can
   be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded
   sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most
   purposes.
   [ ]

Contents

     * 1 General characteristics
     * 2 History
          + 2.1 Background
          + 2.2 1960s
          + 2.3 1970s
          + 2.4 1980s
          + 2.5 1990s
          + 2.6 2000s-2010s
     * 3 Illumination
     * 4 Connection to other circuits
     * 5 Passive-matrix
     * 6 Active-matrix technologies
          + 6.1 Twisted nematic (TN)
          + 6.2 In-plane switching (IPS)
               o 6.2.1 Super In-plane switching (S-IPS)
          + 6.3 M+ or RGBW controversy
          + 6.4 IPS in comparison to AMOLED
          + 6.5 Advanced fringe field switching (AFFS)
          + 6.6 Vertical alignment (VA)
          + 6.7 Blue phase mode
     * 7 Quality control
     * 8 "Zero-power" (bistable) displays
     * 9 Specifications
     * 10 Advantages and disadvantages
          + 10.1 Advantages
          + 10.2 Disadvantages
     * 11 Chemicals used
          + 11.1 Environmental impact
     * 12 See also
     * 13 References
     * 14 External links
          + 14.1 General information

General characteristics[edit]

   An LCD screen used as a notification panel for travellers

   Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned
   between two transparent electrodes, often made of Indium-Tin oxide
   (ITO) and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular
   polarizers), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the
   cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal between
   the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be
   blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric field is
   applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is determined
   by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic
   (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are
   perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in
   a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the
   polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the
   applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the
   center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the
   polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through
   the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized
   perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel
   will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid
   crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in
   varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.

   The chemical formula of the liquid crystals used in LCDs may vary.
   Formulas may be patented.^[4] An example is a mixture of
   2-(4-alkoxyphenyl)-5-alkylpyrimidine with cyanobiphenyl, patented by
   Merck and Sharp Corporation. The patent that covered that specific
   mixture expired.^[5]

   Most color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used
   to generate red, green, and blue subpixels. The LCD color filters are
   made with a photolithography process on large glass sheets that are
   later glued with other glass sheets containing a TFT array, spacers and
   liquid crystal, creating several color LCDs that are then cut from one
   another and laminated with polarizer sheets. Red, green, blue and black
   photoresists (resists) are used. All resists contain a finely ground
   powdered pigment, with particles being just 40 nanometers across. The
   black resist is the first to be applied; this will create a black grid
   (known in the industry as a black matrix) that will separate red, green
   and blue subpixels from one another, increasing contrast ratios and
   preventing light from leaking from one subpixel onto other surrounding
   subpixels.^[6] After the black resist has been dried in an oven and
   exposed to UV light through a photomask, the unexposed areas are washed
   away, creating a black grid. Then the same process is repeated with the
   remaining resists. This fills the holes in the black grid with their
   corresponding colored
   resists.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]^
   [20] Another color-generation method used in early color PDAs and some
   calculators was done by varying the voltage in a Super-twisted nematic
   LCD, where the variable twist between tighter-spaced plates causes a
   varying double refraction birefringence, thus changing the hue.^[21]
   They were typically restricted to 3 colors per pixel: orange, green,
   and blue.^[22]
   LCD in a Texas Instruments calculator with top polarizer removed from
   device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are
   perpendicular. As a result, the colors are inverted.

   The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less
   dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the
   voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information
   content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed
   polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is
   much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright
   state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors
   and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to
   display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background.
   When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this
   purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS
   LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have
   replaced TN LCDs, particularly in smartphones. Both the liquid crystal
   material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If
   an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long
   period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and
   degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an
   alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field
   as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is
   identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).
   A Casio Alarm Chrono digital watch with LCD

   Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as
   in digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with
   independent electrodes for each segment.^[23] In contrast, full
   alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with
   pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows
   on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes
   it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general
   method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one
   side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-one and
   applying the picture information on the other side at the columns
   row-by-row. For details on the various matrix addressing schemes see
   passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs.

   LCDs, along with OLED displays, are manufactured in cleanrooms
   borrowing techniques from semiconductor manufacturing and using large
   sheets of glass whose size has increased over time. Several displays
   are manufactured at the same time, and then cut from the sheet of
   glass, also known as the mother glass or LCD glass substrate. The
   increase in size allows more displays or larger displays to be made,
   just like with increasing wafer sizes in semiconductor manufacturing.
   The glass sizes are as follows:
   LCD-Glass-sizes-generation
   Generation Length [mm] Height [mm] Year of introduction References
   GEN 1 200-300 200-400 1990 ^[24]^[25]
   GEN 2 370 470
   GEN 3 550 650 1996-1998 ^[26]
   GEN 3.5 600 720 1996 ^[25]
   GEN 4 680 880 2000-2002 ^[25]^[26]
   GEN 4.5 730 920 2000-2004 ^[27]
   GEN 5 1100 1250-1300 2002-2004 ^[25]^[26]
   GEN 5.5 1300 1500
   GEN 6 1500 1800-1850 2002-2004 ^[25]^[26]
   GEN 7 1870 2200 2003 ^[28]^[29]
   GEN 7.5 1950 2250 ^[25]
   GEN 8 2160 2460 ^[29]
   GEN 8.5 2200 2500 2007-2016 ^[30]^[31]
   GEN 8.6 2250 2600 2016 ^[31]
   GEN 10 2880 3130 2009 ^[32]^[33]
   GEN 10.5 (also known as GEN 11) 2940 3370 2018^[34] ^[35]

   Until Gen 8, manufacturers would not agree on a single mother glass
   size and as a result, different manufacturers would use slightly
   different glass sizes for the same generation. Some manufacturers have
   adopted Gen 8.6 mother glass sheets which are only slightly larger than
   Gen 8.5, allowing for more 50 and 58 inch LCDs to be made per mother
   glass, specially 58 inch LCDs, in which case 6 can be produced on a Gen
   8.6 mother glass vs only 3 on a Gen 8.5 mother glass, significantly
   reducing waste.^[31] The thickness of the mother glass also increases
   with each generation, so larger mother glass sizes are better suited
   for larger displays. An LCD Module (LCM) is a ready-to-use LCD with a
   backlight. Thus, a factory that makes LCD Modules does not necessarily
   make LCDs, it may only assemble them into the modules. LCD glass
   substrates are made by companies such as AGC Inc., Corning Inc., and
   Nippon Electric Glass.

History[edit]

   The origins and the complex history of liquid-crystal displays from the
   perspective of an insider during the early days were described by
   Joseph A. Castellano in Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal
   Displays and the Creation of an Industry.^[36] Another report on the
   origins and history of LCD from a different perspective until 1991 has
   been published by Hiroshi Kawamoto, available at the IEEE History
   Center.^[37] A description of Swiss contributions to LCD developments,
   written by Peter J. Wild, can be found at the Engineering and
   Technology History Wiki.^[38]

Background[edit]

   Main articles: Liquid crystal and Thin-film transistor

   In 1888,^[39] Friedrich Reinitzer (1858-1927) discovered the liquid
   crystalline nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two
   melting points and generation of colors) and published his findings at
   a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 (F. Reinitzer:
   Beitraege zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins, Monatshefte fuer Chemie
   (Wien) 9, 421-441 (1888)).^[40] In 1904, Otto Lehmann published his
   work "Fluessige Kristalle" (Liquid Crystals). In 1911, Charles Mauguin
   first experimented with liquid crystals confined between plates in thin
   layers.

   In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of
   liquid crystals and classified them in three types (nematics, smectics
   and cholesterics). In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically
   switched light valve, called the Freedericksz transition, the essential
   effect of all LCD technology. In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph
   company patented the first practical application of the technology,
   "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve". In 1962, the first major English
   language publication Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid
   Crystals was published by Dr. George W. Gray.^[41] In 1962, Richard
   Williams of RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting
   electro-optic characteristics and he realized an electro-optical effect
   by generating stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal
   material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an
   electro-hydrodynamic instability forming what are now called "Williams
   domains" inside the liquid crystal.^[42]

   The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) was
   invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and
   presented in 1960.^[43]^[44] Building on their work with MOSFETs, Paul
   K. Weimer at RCA developed the thin-film transistor (TFT) in 1962.^[45]
   It was a type of MOSFET distinct from the standard bulk MOSFET.^[46]

1960s[edit]

   In 1964, George H. Heilmeier, then working at the RCA laboratories on
   the effect discovered by Williams achieved the switching of colors by
   field-induced realignment of dichroic dyes in a homeotropically
   oriented liquid crystal. Practical problems with this new
   electro-optical effect made Heilmeier continue to work on scattering
   effects in liquid crystals and finally the achievement of the first
   operational liquid-crystal display based on what he called the dynamic
   scattering mode (DSM). Application of a voltage to a DSM display
   switches the initially clear transparent liquid crystal layer into a
   milky turbid state. DSM displays could be operated in transmissive and
   in reflective mode but they required a considerable current to flow for
   their operation.^[47]^[48]^[49]^[50] George H. Heilmeier was inducted
   in the National Inventors Hall of Fame^[51] and credited with the
   invention of LCDs. Heilmeier's work is an IEEE Milestone.^[52]

   In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by
   the UK's Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE
   supported ongoing work by George William Gray and his team at the
   University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid
   crystals, which had correct stability and temperature properties for
   application in LCDs.

   The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by
   Bernard Lechner of RCA Laboratories in 1968.^[53] Lechner, F.J.
   Marlowe, E.O. Nester and J. Tults demonstrated the concept in 1968 with
   an 18x2 matrix dynamic scattering mode (DSM) LCD that used standard
   discrete MOSFETs.^[54]

1970s[edit]

   On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect (TN) in liquid
   crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland,
   (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt
   (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as
   inventors.^[47] Hoffmann-La Roche licensed the invention to Swiss
   manufacturer Brown, Boveri & Cie, its joint venture partner at that
   time, which produced TN displays for wristwatches and other
   applications during the 1970s for the international markets including
   the Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first
   digital quartz wristwatches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products.
   James Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at
   Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical
   patent in the United States on April 22, 1971.^[55] In 1971, the
   company of Fergason, ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated), produced LCDs based
   on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the poor-quality DSM types due
   to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power
   consumption. Tetsuro Hama and Izuhiko Nishimura of Seiko received a US
   patent dated February 1971, for an electronic wristwatch incorporating
   a TN-LCD.^[56] In 1972, the first wristwatch with TN-LCD was launched
   on the market: The Gruen Teletime which was a four digit display watch.

   In 1972, the concept of the active-matrix thin-film transistor (TFT)
   liquid-crystal display panel was prototyped in the United States by T.
   Peter Brody's team at Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.^[57]
   In 1973, Brody, J. A. Asars and G. D. Dixon at Westinghouse Research
   Laboratories demonstrated the first thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal
   display (TFT LCD).^[58]^[59] As of 2013^[update], all modern
   high-resolution and high-quality electronic visual display devices use
   TFT-based active matrix displays.^[60] Brody and Fang-Chen Luo
   demonstrated the first flat active-matrix liquid-crystal display (AM
   LCD) in 1974, and then Brody coined the term "active matrix" in
   1975.^[53]

   In 1972 North American Rockwell Microelectronics Corp introduced the
   use of DSM LCDs for calculators for marketing by Lloyds Electronics
   Inc, though these required an internal light source for
   illumination.^[61] Sharp Corporation followed with DSM LCDs for
   pocket-sized calculators in 1973^[62] and then mass-produced TN LCDs
   for watches in 1975.^[63] Other Japanese companies soon took a leading
   position in the wristwatch market, like Seiko and its first 6-digit
   TN-LCD quartz wristwatch, and Casio's 'Casiotron'. Color LCDs based on
   Guest-Host interaction were invented by a team at RCA in 1968.^[64] A
   particular type of such a color LCD was developed by Japan's Sharp
   Corporation in the 1970s, receiving patents for their inventions, such
   as a patent by Shinji Kato and Takaaki Miyazaki in May 1975,^[65] and
   then improved by Fumiaki Funada and Masataka Matsuura in December
   1975.^[66] TFT LCDs similar to the prototypes developed by a
   Westinghouse team in 1972 were patented in 1976 by a team at Sharp
   consisting of Fumiaki Funada, Masataka Matsuura, and Tomio Wada,^[67]
   then improved in 1977 by a Sharp team consisting of Kohei Kishi,
   Hirosaku Nonomura, Keiichiro Shimizu, and Tomio Wada.^[68] However,
   these TFT-LCDs were not yet ready for use in products, as problems with
   the materials for the TFTs were not yet solved.

1980s[edit]

   In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) Research Center,
   Switzerland, invented the super-twisted nematic (STN) structure for
   passive matrix-addressed LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as
   inventors in the corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland
   on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983. Patents were granted in
   Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216,^[69] U.S. Patent 4,634,229
   and many more countries. In 1980, Brown Boveri started a 50/50 joint
   venture with the Dutch Philips company, called Videlec.^[70] Philips
   had the required know-how to design and build integrated circuits for
   the control of large LCD panels. In addition, Philips had better access
   to markets for electronic components and intended to use LCDs in new
   product generations of hi-fi, video equipment and telephones. In 1984,
   Philips researchers Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan invented a
   video speed-drive scheme that solved the slow response time of
   STN-LCDs, enabling high-resolution, high-quality, and smooth-moving
   video images on STN-LCDs.^[71] In 1985, Philips inventors Theodorus
   Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan solved the problem of driving
   high-resolution STN-LCDs using low-voltage (CMOS-based) drive
   electronics, allowing the application of high-quality (high resolution
   and video speed) LCD panels in battery-operated portable products like
   notebook computers and mobile phones.^[72] In 1985, Philips acquired
   100% of the Videlec AG company based in Switzerland. Afterwards,
   Philips moved the Videlec production lines to the Netherlands. Years
   later, Philips successfully produced and marketed complete modules
   (consisting of the LCD screen, microphone, speakers etc.) in
   high-volume production for the booming mobile phone industry.

   The first color LCD televisions were developed as handheld televisions
   in Japan. In 1980, Hattori Seiko's R&D group began development on color
   LCD pocket televisions.^[73] In 1982, Seiko Epson released the first
   LCD television, the Epson TV Watch, a wristwatch equipped with a small
   active-matrix LCD television.^[74]^[75] Sharp Corporation introduced
   dot matrix TN-LCD in 1983.^[63] In 1984, Epson released the ET-10, the
   first full-color, pocket LCD television.^[76] The same year, Citizen
   Watch,^[77] introduced the Citizen Pocket TV,^[73] a 2.7-inch color LCD
   TV,^[77] with the first commercial TFT LCD.^[73] In 1988, Sharp
   demonstrated a 14-inch, active-matrix, full-color, full-motion TFT-LCD.
   This led to Japan launching an LCD industry, which developed large-size
   LCDs, including TFT computer monitors and LCD televisions.^[78] Epson
   developed the 3LCD projection technology in the 1980s, and licensed it
   for use in projectors in 1988.^[79] Epson's VPJ-700, released in
   January 1989, was the world's first compact, full-color LCD
   projector.^[75]

1990s[edit]

   In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical
   effects as alternatives to twisted nematic field effect LCDs (TN- and
   STN- LCDs). One approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one
   glass substrate only to produce an electric field essentially parallel
   to the glass substrates.^[80]^[81] To take full advantage of the
   properties of this In Plane Switching (IPS) technology further work was
   needed. After thorough analysis, details of advantageous embodiments
   are filed in Germany by Guenter Baur et al. and patented in various
   countries.^[82]^[83] The Fraunhofer Institute ISE in Freiburg, where
   the inventors worked, assigns these patents to Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, a
   supplier of LC substances. In 1992, shortly thereafter, engineers at
   Hitachi work out various practical details of the IPS technology to
   interconnect the thin-film transistor array as a matrix and to avoid
   undesirable stray fields in between pixels.^[84]^[85]

   Hitachi also improved the viewing angle dependence further by
   optimizing the shape of the electrodes (Super IPS). NEC and Hitachi
   become early manufacturers of active-matrix addressed LCDs based on the
   IPS technology. This is a milestone for implementing large-screen LCDs
   having acceptable visual performance for flat-panel computer monitors
   and television screens. In 1996, Samsung developed the optical
   patterning technique that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi-domain and In
   Plane Switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through
   2006.^[86] In the late 1990s, the LCD industry began shifting away from
   Japan, towards South Korea and Taiwan,^[78] which later shifted to
   China.

2000s-2010s[edit]

   In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image
   quality of cathode-ray-tube-based (CRT) TVs.^[87] In the fourth quarter
   of 2007, LCD televisions surpassed CRT TVs in worldwide sales for the
   first time.^[88] LCD TVs were projected to account 50% of the
   200 million TVs to be shipped globally in 2006, according to
   Displaybank.^[89]^[90] In October 2011, Toshiba announced 2560  * 1600
   pixels on a 6.1-inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet
   computer,^[91] especially for Chinese character display. The 2010s also
   saw the wide adoption of TGP (Tracking Gate-line in Pixel), which moves
   the driving circuitry from the borders of the display to in between the
   pixels, allowing for narrow bezels.^[92] LCDs can be made transparent
   and flexible, but they cannot emit light without a backlight like OLED
   and microLED, which are other technologies that can also be made
   flexible and transparent.^[93]^[94]^[95]^[96] Special films can be used
   to increase the viewing angles of LCDs.^[97]^[98]

   In 2016, Panasonic developed IPS LCDs with a contrast ratio of
   1,000,000:1, rivaling OLEDs. This technology was later put into mass
   production as dual layer, dual panel or LMCL (Light Modulating Cell
   Layer) LCDs. The technology uses 2 liquid crystal layers instead of
   one, and may be used along with a mini-LED backlight and quantum dot
   sheets.^[99]^[100]^[101]^[102]^[103]^[104]

Illumination[edit]

   Since LCDs produce no light of their own, they require external light
   to produce a visible image.^[105]^[106] In a transmissive type of LCD,
   the light source is provided at the back of the glass stack and is
   called a backlight. Active-matrix LCDs are almost always
   backlit.^[107]^[108] Passive LCDs may be backlit but many use a
   reflector at the back of the glass stack to utilize ambient light.
   Transflective LCDs combine the features of a backlit transmissive
   display and a reflective display.

   The common implementations of LCD backlight technology are:
   18 parallel CCFLs as backlight for a 42-inch (106 cm) LCD TV
     * CCFL: The LCD panel is lit either by two cold cathode fluorescent
       lamps placed at opposite edges of the display or an array of
       parallel CCFLs behind larger displays. A diffuser (made of PMMA
       acrylic plastic, also known as a wave or light guide/guiding
       plate^[109]^[110]) then spreads the light out evenly across the
       whole display. For many years, this technology had been used almost
       exclusively. Unlike white LEDs, most CCFLs have an even-white
       spectral output resulting in better color gamut for the display.
       However, CCFLs are less energy efficient than LEDs and require a
       somewhat costly inverter to convert whatever DC voltage the device
       uses (usually 5 or 12 V) to ~=1000 V needed to light a CCFL.^[111]
       The thickness of the inverter transformers also limits how thin the
       display can be made.
     * EL-WLED: The LCD panel is lit by a row of white LEDs placed at one
       or more edges of the screen. A light diffuser (light guide plate,
       LGP) is then used to spread the light evenly across the whole
       display, similarly to edge-lit CCFL LCD backlights. The diffuser is
       made out of either PMMA plastic or special glass, PMMA is used in
       most cases because it is rugged, while special glass is used when
       the thickness of the LCD is of primary concern, because it doesn't
       expand as much when heated or exposed to moisture, which allows
       LCDs to be just 5mm thick. Quantum dots may be placed on top of the
       diffuser as a quantum dot enhancement film (QDEF, in which case
       they need a layer to be protected from heat and humidity) or on the
       color filter of the LCD, replacing the resists that are normally
       used.^[109] As of 2012, this design is the most popular one in
       desktop computer monitors. It allows for the thinnest displays.
       Some LCD monitors using this technology have a feature called
       dynamic contrast, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton,
       Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan^[112] Using PWM (pulse-width
       modulation, a technology where the intensity of the LEDs are kept
       constant, but the brightness adjustment is achieved by varying a
       time interval of flashing these constant light intensity light
       sources^[113]), the backlight is dimmed to the brightest color that
       appears on the screen while simultaneously boosting the LCD
       contrast to the maximum achievable levels, allowing the 1000:1
       contrast ratio of the LCD panel to be scaled to different light
       intensities, resulting in the "30000:1" contrast ratios seen in the
       advertising on some of these monitors. Since computer screen images
       usually have full white somewhere in the image, the backlight will
       usually be at full intensity, making this "feature" mostly a
       marketing gimmick for computer monitors, however for TV screens it
       drastically increases the perceived contrast ratio and dynamic
       range, improves the viewing angle dependency and drastically
       reducing the power consumption of conventional LCD televisions.
     * WLED array: The LCD panel is lit by a full array of white LEDs
       placed behind a diffuser behind the panel. LCDs that use this
       implementation will usually have the ability to dim or completely
       turn off the LEDs in the dark areas of the image being displayed,
       effectively increasing the contrast ratio of the display. The
       precision with which this can be done will depend on the number of
       dimming zones of the display. The more dimming zones, the more
       precise the dimming, with less obvious blooming artifacts which are
       visible as dark grey patches surrounded by the unlit areas of the
       LCD. As of 2012, this design gets most of its use from upscale,
       larger-screen LCD televisions.
     * RGB-LED array: Similar to the WLED array, except the panel is lit
       by a full array of RGB LEDs. While displays lit with white LEDs
       usually have a poorer color gamut than CCFL lit displays, panels
       lit with RGB LEDs have very wide color gamuts. This implementation
       is most popular on professional graphics editing LCDs. As of 2012,
       LCDs in this category usually cost more than $1000. As of 2016 the
       cost of this category has drastically reduced and such LCD
       televisions obtained same price levels as the former 28" (71 cm)
       CRT based categories.
     * Monochrome LEDs: such as red, green, yellow or blue LEDs are used
       in the small passive monochrome LCDs typically used in clocks,
       watches and small appliances.
     * Mini-LED: Backlighting with Mini-LEDs can support over a thousand
       of Full-area Local Area Dimming (FLAD) zones. This allows deeper
       blacks and higher contrast ratio.^[114] (Not to be confused with
       MicroLED.)

   Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight
   instead of the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is
   dynamically controlled with the video information (dynamic backlight
   control). The combination with the dynamic backlight control, invented
   by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus
   de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the display
   system (also marketed as HDR, high dynamic range television or FLAD,
   full-area local area dimming).^[115]^[116]^[112]

   The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical
   films such as prismatic structure (prism sheet) to gain the light into
   the desired viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that
   recycle the polarized light that was formerly absorbed by the first
   polarizer of the LCD (invented by Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan
   and Paulus Schaareman),^[117] generally achieved using so called DBEF
   films manufactured and supplied by 3M.^[118] Improved versions of the
   prism sheet have a wavy rather than a prismatic structure, and
   introduce waves laterally into the structure of the sheet while also
   varying the height of the waves, directing even more light towards the
   screen and reducing aliasing or moire between the structure of the
   prism sheet and the subpixels of the LCD. A wavy structure is easier to
   mass-produce than a prismatic one using conventional diamond machine
   tools, which are used to make the rollers used to imprint the wavy
   structure into plastic sheets, thus producing prism sheets.^[119] A
   diffuser sheet is placed on both sides of the prism sheet to make the
   light of the backlight, uniform, while a mirror is placed behind the
   light guide plate to direct all light forwards. The prism sheet with
   its diffuser sheets are placed on top of the light guide
   plate.^[120]^[109] The DBEF polarizers consist of a large stack of
   uniaxial oriented birefringent films that reflect the former absorbed
   polarization mode of the light.^[121] Such reflective polarizers using
   uniaxial oriented polymerized liquid crystals (birefringent polymers or
   birefringent glue) are invented in 1989 by Philips researchers Dirk
   Broer, Adrianus de Vaan and Joerg Brambring.^[122] The combination of
   such reflective polarizers, and LED dynamic backlight control^[112]
   make today's LCD televisions far more efficient than the CRT-based
   sets, leading to a worldwide energy saving of 600 TWh (2017), equal to
   10% of the electricity consumption of all households worldwide or equal
   to 2 times the energy production of all solar cells in the
   world.^[123]^[124]

   Due to the LCD layer that generates the desired high resolution images
   at flashing video speeds using very low power electronics in
   combination with LED based backlight technologies, LCD technology has
   become the dominant display technology for products such as
   televisions, desktop monitors, notebooks, tablets, smartphones and
   mobile phones. Although competing OLED technology is pushed to the
   market, such OLED displays do not feature the HDR capabilities like
   LCDs in combination with 2D LED backlight technologies have, reason why
   the annual market of such LCD-based products is still growing faster
   (in volume) than OLED-based products while the efficiency of LCDs (and
   products like portable computers, mobile phones and televisions) may
   even be further improved by preventing the light to be absorbed in the
   colour filters of the LCD.^[125]^[126]^[127] Such reflective colour
   filter solutions are not yet implemented by the LCD industry and have
   not made it further than laboratory prototypes. They will likely be
   implemented by the LCD industry to increase the efficiency compared to
   OLED technologies.

Connection to other circuits[edit]

   A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board
   traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale ruler. The conductive and
   insulating layers in the black stripe are very small.

   A standard television receiver screen, a modern LCD panel, has over six
   million pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network
   embedded in the screen. The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with
   vertical wires across the whole screen on one side of the screen and
   horizontal wires across the whole screen on the other side of the
   screen. To this grid each pixel has a positive connection on one side
   and a negative connection on the other side. So the total amount of
   wires needed for a 1080p display is 3 x 1920 going vertically and 1080
   going horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and
   vertically. That's three for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of
   pixels for each color for a total of 5760 wires going vertically and
   1080 rows of wires going horizontally. For a panel that is 28.8 inches
   (73 centimeters) wide, that means a wire density of 200 wires per inch
   along the horizontal edge.

   The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that are carefully matched up
   with the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level. The drivers may be
   installed using several methods, the most common of which are COG
   (Chip-On-Glass) and TAB (Tape-automated bonding) These same principles
   apply also for smartphone screens that are much smaller than TV
   screens.^[128]^[129]^[130] LCD panels typically use thinly-coated
   metallic conductive pathways on a glass substrate to form the cell
   circuitry to operate the panel. It is usually not possible to use
   soldering techniques to directly connect the panel to a separate
   copper-etched circuit board. Instead, interfacing is accomplished using
   anisotropic conductive film or, for lower densities, elastomeric
   connectors.

Passive-matrix[edit]

   Prototype of a passive-matrix STN-LCD with 540 *270 pixels, Brown
   Boveri Research, Switzerland, 1984

   Monochrome and later color passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most
   early laptops (although a few used plasma displays^[131]^[132]) and the
   original Nintendo Game Boy^[133] until the mid-1990s, when color
   active-matrix became standard on all laptops. The commercially
   unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first
   to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome).
   Passive-matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less
   demanding than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive
   calculators. In particular, these are used on portable devices where
   less information content needs to be displayed, lowest power
   consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or readability in
   direct sunlight is needed.
   A comparison between a blank passive-matrix display (top) and a blank
   active-matrix display (bottom). A passive-matrix display can be
   identified when the blank background is more grey in appearance than
   the crisper active-matrix display, fog appears on all edges of the
   screen, and while pictures appear to be fading on the screen.

   Displays having a passive-matrix structure are employing super-twisted
   nematic STN (invented by Brown Boveri Research Center, Baden,
   Switzerland, in 1983; scientific details were published^[134]) or
   double-layer STN (DSTN) technology (the latter of which addresses a
   color-shifting problem with the former), and color-STN (CSTN) in which
   color is added by using an internal filter. STN LCDs have been
   optimized for passive-matrix addressing. They exhibit a sharper
   threshold of the contrast-vs-voltage characteristic than the original
   TN LCDs. This is important, because pixels are subjected to partial
   voltages even while not selected. Crosstalk between activated and
   non-activated pixels has to be handled properly by keeping the RMS
   voltage of non-activated pixels below the threshold voltage as
   discovered by Peter J. Wild in 1972,^[135] while activated pixels are
   subjected to voltages above threshold (the voltages according to the
   "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme).^[136] Driving such STN displays
   according to the Alt & Pleshko drive scheme require very high line
   addressing voltages. Welzen and de Vaan invented an alternative drive
   scheme (a non "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme) requiring much lower
   voltages, such that the STN display could be driven using low voltage
   CMOS technologies.^[72]

   STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed
   voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite
   polarity during the next frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the
   corresponding row and column circuits. This type of display is called
   passive-matrix addressed, because the pixel must retain its state
   between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical charge. As
   the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows)
   increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Slow response
   times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs
   with too many pixels and driven according to the "Alt & Pleshko" drive
   scheme. Welzen and de Vaan also invented a non RMS drive scheme
   enabling to drive STN displays with video rates and enabling to show
   smooth moving video images on an STN display.^[71] Citizen, amongst
   others, licensed these patents and successfully introduced several STN
   based LCD pocket televisions on the market^[137]
   How an LCD works using an active-matrix structure

   Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only
   required for picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and
   AJSM de Vaan invented an STN type display that could be operated in a
   bistable mode, enabling extremely high resolution images up to 4000
   lines or more using only low voltages.^[138] Since a pixel may be
   either in an on-state or in an off state at the moment new information
   needs to be written to that particular pixel, the addressing method of
   these bistable displays is rather complex, a reason why these displays
   did not made it to the market. That changed when in the 2010
   "zero-power" (bistable) LCDs became available. Potentially,
   passive-matrix addressing can be used with devices if their write/erase
   characteristics are suitable, which was the case for ebooks which need
   to show still pictures only. After a page is written to the display,
   the display may be cut from the power while retaining readable images.
   This has the advantage that such ebooks may be operated for long
   periods of time powered by only a small battery.

   High-resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors
   and televisions, use an active-matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film
   transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC
   layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each
   column line to access one pixel. When a row line is selected, all of
   the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages
   corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the
   column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is
   selected. All of the row lines are selected in sequence during a
   refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look brighter and
   sharper than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and
   generally have quicker response times, producing much better images.
   Sharp produces bistable reflective LCDs with a 1-bit SRAM cell per
   pixel that only requires small amounts of power to maintain an
   image.^[139]

   Segment LCDs can also have color by using Field Sequential Color (FSC
   LCD). This kind of displays have a high speed passive segment LCD panel
   with an RGB backlight. The backlight quickly changes color, making it
   appear white to the naked eye. The LCD panel is synchronized with the
   backlight. For example, to make a segment appear red, the segment is
   only turned ON when the backlight is red, and to make a segment appear
   magenta, the segment is turned ON when the backlight is blue, and it
   continues to be ON while the backlight becomes red, and it turns OFF
   when the backlight becomes green. To make a segment appear black, the
   segment is always turned ON. An FSC LCD divides a color image into 3
   images (one Red, one Green and one Blue) and it displays them in order.
   Due to persistence of vision, the 3 monochromatic images appear as one
   color image. An FSC LCD needs an LCD panel with a refresh rate of
   180 Hz, and the response time is reduced to just 5 milliseconds when
   compared with normal STN LCD panels which have a response time of 16
   milliseconds.^[140]^[141]^[142]^[143] FSC LCDs contain a Chip-On-Glass
   driver IC can also be used with a capacitive touchscreen.

   Samsung introduced UFB (Ultra Fine & Bright) displays back in 2002,
   utilized the super-birefringent effect. It has the luminance, color
   gamut, and most of the contrast of a TFT-LCD, but only consumes as much
   power as an STN display, according to Samsung. It was being used in a
   variety of Samsung cellular-telephone models produced until late 2006,
   when Samsung stopped producing UFB displays. UFB displays were also
   used in certain models of LG mobile phones.

Active-matrix technologies[edit]

   A Casio 1.8 in color TFT LCD, used in the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-P93A
   digital compact cameras
   Structure of a color LCD with an edge-lit CCFL backlight

   Main articles: Thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display and
   Active-matrix liquid-crystal display

   See also: List of LCD matrices

  Twisted nematic (TN)[edit]

   See also: Twisted nematic field effect

   Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystals that twist and untwist
   at varying degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is
   applied to a TN liquid crystal cell, polarized light passes through the
   90-degrees twisted LC layer. In proportion to the voltage applied, the
   liquid crystals untwist changing the polarization and blocking the
   light's path. By properly adjusting the level of the voltage almost any
   gray level or transmission can be achieved.

  In-plane switching (IPS)[edit]

   Main article: IPS panel

   In-plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals
   in a plane parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the
   electrical field is applied through opposite electrodes on the same
   glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can be reoriented
   (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields
   inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors for
   each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard
   thin-film transistor (TFT) display. The IPS technology is used in
   everything from televisions, computer monitors, and even wearable
   devices, especially almost all LCD smartphone panels are IPS/FFS mode.
   IPS displays belong to the LCD panel family screen types. The other two
   types are VA and TN. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2001 by
   Hitachi as 17" monitor in Market, the additional transistors resulted
   in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight
   and consuming more power, making this type of display less desirable
   for notebook computers. Panasonic Himeji G8.5 was using an enhanced
   version of IPS, also LGD in Korea, then currently the world biggest LCD
   panel manufacture BOE in China is also IPS/FFS mode TV panel.

   Close-up of a corner of an IPS LCD panel

    Super In-plane switching (S-IPS)[edit]

   Super-IPS was later introduced after in-plane switching with even
   better response times and color reproduction.^[144]

  M+ or RGBW controversy[edit]

   In 2015 LG Display announced the implementation of a new technology
   called M+ which is the addition of white subpixel along with the
   regular RGB dots in their IPS panel technology.^[145]

   Most of the new M+ technology was employed on 4K TV sets which led to a
   controversy after tests showed that the addition of a white sub pixel
   replacing the traditional RGB structure would reduce the resolution by
   around 25%. This means that a 4K TV cannot display the full UHD TV
   standard. The media and internet users later called this "RGBW" TVs
   because of the white sub pixel. Although LG Display has developed this
   technology for use in notebook display, outdoor and smartphones, it
   became more popular in the TV market because the announced 4K UHD
   resolution but still being incapable of achieving true UHD resolution
   defined by the CTA as 3840x2160 active pixels with 8-bit color. This
   negatively impacts the rendering of text, making it a bit fuzzier,
   which is especially noticeable when a TV is used as a PC
   monitor.^[146]^[147]^[148]^[149]

  IPS in comparison to AMOLED[edit]

   In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD
   NOVA)) has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only
   IPS LCD with 518 nits and double an active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display
   with 305 nits. LG also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more
   efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power
   of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen.^[150] When it comes
   to contrast ratio, AMOLED display still performs best due to its
   underlying technology, where the black levels are displayed as pitch
   black and not as dark gray. On August 24, 2011, Nokia announced the
   Nokia 701 and also made the claim of the world's brightest display at
   1000 nits. The screen also had Nokia's Clearblack layer, improving the
   contrast ratio and bringing it closer to that of the AMOLED screens.

   This pixel-layout is found in S-IPS LCDs. A chevron shape is used to
   widen the viewing cone (range of viewing directions with good contrast
   and low color shift).

  Advanced fringe field switching (AFFS)[edit]

   Known as fringe field switching (FFS) until 2003,^[151] advanced fringe
   field switching is similar to IPS or S-IPS offering superior
   performance and color gamut with high luminosity. AFFS was developed by
   Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd, Korea (formally Hyundai Electronics, LCD
   Task Force).^[152] AFFS-applied notebook applications minimize color
   distortion while maintaining a wider viewing angle for a professional
   display. Color shift and deviation caused by light leakage is corrected
   by optimizing the white gamut which also enhances white/gray
   reproduction. In 2004, Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd licensed AFFS to
   Japan's Hitachi Displays. Hitachi is using AFFS to manufacture high-end
   panels. In 2006, HYDIS licensed AFFS to Sanyo Epson Imaging Devices
   Corporation. Shortly thereafter, Hydis introduced a high-transmittance
   evolution of the AFFS display, called HFFS (FFS+). Hydis introduced
   AFFS+ with improved outdoor readability in 2007. AFFS panels are mostly
   utilized in the cockpits of latest commercial aircraft displays.
   However, it is no longer produced as of February
   2015.^[153]^[154]^[155]

  Vertical alignment (VA)[edit]

   Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid
   crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no
   voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the
   substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers. When
   voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted position,
   allowing light to pass through and create a gray-scale display
   depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has
   a deeper-black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing
   angle, and better image quality at extreme temperatures than
   traditional twisted-nematic displays.^[156] Compared to IPS, the black
   levels are still deeper, allowing for a higher contrast ratio, but the
   viewing angle is narrower, with color and especially contrast shift
   being more apparent.^[157]

  Blue phase mode[edit]

   Main article: Blue phase mode LCD

   Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in
   2008, but they are not in mass-production. The physics of blue phase
   mode LCDs suggest that very short switching times (~=1 ms) can be
   achieved, so time sequential color control can possibly be realized and
   expensive color filters would be obsolete.^[citation needed]

Quality control[edit]

   Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or
   unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead
   pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with
   a few defective transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers'
   policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At
   one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold
   in Korea.^[158] As of 2005, though, Samsung adheres to the less
   restrictive ISO 13406-2 standard.^[159] Other companies have been known
   to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies.^[160]

   Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and
   customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the
   end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard,^[161] which was made
   obsolete in 2008 with the release of ISO 9241, specifically
   ISO-9241-302, 303, 305, 307:2008 pixel defects. However, not every LCD
   manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite
   often interpreted in different ways. LCD panels are more likely to have
   defects than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300 mm
   SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However,
   134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection
   of the whole LCD panel would be a 0% yield. In recent years, quality
   control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is
   usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for
   a new one.^[according to whom?]

   Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest
   LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have a
   zero-defective-pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process
   which can then determine "A"- and "B"-grade panels.^[original
   research?] Many manufacturers would replace a product even with one
   defective pixel. Even where such guarantees do not exist, the location
   of defective pixels is important. A display with only a few defective
   pixels may be unacceptable if the defective pixels are near each other.
   LCD panels also have defects known as clouding (or less commonly mura),
   which describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most
   visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.^[162] As of 2010,
   most premium branded computer LCD panel manufacturers specify their
   products as having zero defects.

"Zero-power" (bistable) displays[edit]

   See also: Ferroelectric liquid crystal display

   The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by Qinetiq (formerly
   DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one
   of two stable orientations ("black" and "white") and power is only
   required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from
   QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent
   Displays has also developed a "no-power" display that uses polymer
   stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD). In 2009 Kent
   demonstrated the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile
   phone, allowing it to change colors, and keep that color even when
   power is removed.^[163]

   In 2004, researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new
   types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable
   techniques.^[164] Several bistable technologies, like the 360DEG BTN
   and the bistable cholesteric, depend mainly on the bulk properties of
   the liquid crystal (LC) and use standard strong anchoring, with
   alignment films and LC mixtures similar to the traditional monostable
   materials. Other bistable technologies, e.g., BiNem technology, are
   based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring
   materials.

Specifications[edit]

     * Resolution The resolution of an LCD is expressed by the number of
       columns and rows of pixels (e.g., 1024 *768). Each pixel is usually
       composed 3 sub-pixels, a red, a green, and a blue one. This had
       been one of the few features of LCD performance that remained
       uniform among different designs. However, there are newer designs
       that share sub-pixels among pixels and add Quattron which attempt
       to efficiently increase the perceived resolution of a display
       without increasing the actual resolution, to mixed results.
     * Spatial performance: For a computer monitor or some other display
       that is being viewed from a very close distance, resolution is
       often expressed in terms of dot pitch or pixels per inch, which is
       consistent with the printing industry. Display density varies per
       application, with televisions generally having a low density for
       long-distance viewing and portable devices having a high density
       for close-range detail. The Viewing Angle of an LCD may be
       important depending on the display and its usage, the limitations
       of certain display technologies mean the display only displays
       accurately at certain angles.
     * Temporal performance: the temporal resolution of an LCD is how well
       it can display changing images, or the accuracy and the number of
       times per second the display draws the data it is being given. LCD
       pixels do not flash on/off between frames, so LCD monitors exhibit
       no refresh-induced flicker no matter how low the refresh
       rate.^[165] But a lower refresh rate can mean visual artefacts like
       ghosting or smearing, especially with fast moving images.
       Individual pixel response time is also important, as all displays
       have some inherent latency in displaying an image which can be
       large enough to create visual artifacts if the displayed image
       changes rapidly.
     * Color performance: There are multiple terms to describe different
       aspects of color performance of a display. Color gamut is the range
       of colors that can be displayed, and color depth, which is the
       fineness with which the color range is divided. Color gamut is a
       relatively straight forward feature, but it is rarely discussed in
       marketing materials except at the professional level. Having a
       color range that exceeds the content being shown on the screen has
       no benefits, so displays are only made to perform within or below
       the range of a certain specification.^[166] There are additional
       aspects to LCD color and color management, such as white point and
       gamma correction, which describe what color white is and how the
       other colors are displayed relative to white.
     * Brightness and contrast ratio: Contrast ratio is the ratio of the
       brightness of a full-on pixel to a full-off pixel. The LCD itself
       is only a light valve and does not generate light; the light comes
       from a backlight that is either fluorescent or a set of LEDs.
       Brightness is usually stated as the maximum light output of the
       LCD, which can vary greatly based on the transparency of the LCD
       and the brightness of the backlight. Brighter backlight allows
       stronger contrast and higher dynamic range (HDR displays are graded
       in peak luminance), but there is always a trade-off between
       brightness and power consumption.

Advantages and disadvantages[edit]

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   Some of these issues relate to full-screen displays, others to small
   displays as on watches, etc. Many of the comparisons are with CRT
   displays.

   Further information: Comparison of CRT, LCD, Plasma, and OLED

  Advantages[edit]

     * Very compact, thin and light, especially in comparison with bulky,
       heavy CRT displays.
     * Low power consumption. Depending on the set display brightness and
       content being displayed, the older CCFT backlit models typically
       use less than half of the power a CRT monitor of the same size
       viewing area would use, and the modern LED backlit models typically
       use 10-25% of the power a CRT monitor would use.^[167]
     * Little heat emitted during operation, due to low power consumption.
     * No geometric distortion.
     * The possible ability to have little or no flicker depending on
       backlight technology.
     * Usually no refresh-rate flicker, because the LCD pixels hold their
       state between refreshes (which are usually done at 200 Hz or
       faster, regardless of the input refresh rate).
     * Sharp image with no bleeding or smearing when operated at native
       resolution.
     * Emits almost no undesirable electromagnetic radiation (in the
       extremely low frequency range), unlike a CRT
       monitor.^[168]^[169]^[better source needed]
     * Can be made in almost any size or shape.
     * No theoretical resolution limit. When multiple LCD panels are used
       together to create a single canvas, each additional panel increases
       the total resolution of the display, which is commonly called
       stacked resolution.^[170]
     * Can be made in large sizes of over 80-inch (2 m) diagonal.
     * Masking effect: the LCD grid can mask the effects of spatial and
       grayscale quantization, creating the illusion of higher image
       quality.^[171]
     * Unaffected by magnetic fields, including the Earth's, unlike most
       color CRTs.
     * As an inherently digital device, the LCD can natively display
       digital data from a DVI or HDMI connection without requiring
       conversion to analog. Some LCD panels have native fiber optic
       inputs in addition to DVI and HDMI.^[172]
     * Many LCD monitors are powered by a 12 V power supply, and if built
       into a computer can be powered by its 12 V power supply.
     * Can be made with very narrow frame borders, allowing multiple LCD
       screens to be arrayed side by side to make up what looks like one
       big screen.

  Disadvantages[edit]

     * Limited viewing angle in some older or cheaper monitors, causing
       color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary with user
       position, even within the intended viewing angle.
     * Uneven backlighting in some monitors (more common in IPS-types and
       older TNs), causing brightness distortion, especially toward the
       edges ("backlight bleed").
     * Black levels may not be as dark as required because individual
       liquid crystals cannot completely block all of the backlight from
       passing through.
     * Display motion blur on moving objects caused by slow response times
       (>8 ms) and eye-tracking on a sample-and-hold display, unless a
       strobing backlight is used. However, this strobing can cause eye
       strain, as is noted next:
     * As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use
       pulse-width modulation (PWM) to dim the display,^[173] which makes
       the screen flicker more acutely (this does not mean visibly) than a
       CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is because the entire
       screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT's phosphor
       sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving
       some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for
       some people.^[174]^[175] Unfortunately, many of these people don't
       know that their eye-strain is being caused by the invisible strobe
       effect of PWM.^[176] This problem is worse on many LED-backlit
       monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL
       lamp.
     * Only one native resolution. Displaying any other resolution either
       requires a video scaler, causing blurriness and jagged edges, or
       running the display at native resolution using 1:1 pixel mapping,
       causing the image either not to fill the screen (letterboxed
       display), or to run off the lower or right edges of the screen.
     * Fixed bit depth (also called color depth). Many cheaper LCDs are
       only able to display 262144 (2^18) colors. 8-bit S-IPS panels can
       display 16 million (2^24) colors and have significantly better
       black level, but are expensive and have slower response time.
     * Input lag, because the LCD's A/D converter waits for each frame to
       be completely been output before drawing it to the LCD panel. Many
       LCD monitors do post-processing before displaying the image in an
       attempt to compensate for poor color fidelity, which adds an
       additional lag. Further, a video scaler must be used when
       displaying non-native resolutions, which adds yet more time lag.
       Scaling and post processing are usually done in a single chip on
       modern monitors, but each function that chip performs adds some
       delay. Some displays have a video gaming mode which disables all or
       most processing to reduce perceivable input lag.
     * Dead or stuck pixels may occur during manufacturing or after a
       period of use. A stuck pixel will glow with color even on an
       all-black screen, while a dead one will always remain black.
     * Subject to burn-in effect, although the cause differs from CRT and
       the effect may not be permanent, a static image can cause burn-in
       in a matter of hours in badly designed displays.
     * In a constant-on situation, thermalization may occur in case of bad
       thermal management, in which part of the screen has overheated and
       looks discolored compared to the rest of the screen.
     * Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low
       temperature environments. In sub-zero environments, LCD screens may
       cease to function without the use of supplemental heating.
     * Loss of contrast in high temperature environments.

Chemicals used[edit]

   Several different families of liquid crystals are used in liquid
   crystal displays. The molecules used have to be anisotropic, and to
   exhibit mutual attraction. Polarizable rod-shaped molecules (biphenyls,
   terphenyls, etc.) are common. A common form is a pair of aromatic
   benzene rings, with a nonpolar moiety (pentyl, heptyl, octyl, or alkyl
   oxy group) on one end and polar (nitrile, halogen) on the other.
   Sometimes the benzene rings are separated with an acetylene group,
   ethylene, CH=N, CH=NO, N=N, N=NO, or ester group. In practice, eutectic
   mixtures of several chemicals are used, to achieve wider temperature
   operating range (-10..+60 DEGC for low-end and -20..+100 DEGC for
   high-performance displays). For example, the E7 mixture is composed of
   three biphenyls and one terphenyl: 39 wt.% of
   4'-pentyl[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 24..35 DEGC), 36
   wt.% of 4'-heptyl[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range
   30..43 DEGC), 16 wt.% of 4'-octoxy[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile
   (nematic range 54..80 DEGC), and 9 wt.% of
   4-pentyl[1,1':4',1-terphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range
   131..240 DEGC).^[177]

  Environmental impact[edit]

   See also: Electronic waste

   The production of LCD screens uses nitrogen trifluoride (NF[3]) as an
   etching fluid during the production of the thin-film components. NF[3]
   is a potent greenhouse gas, and its relatively long half-life may make
   it a potentially harmful contributor to global warming. A report in
   Geophysical Research Letters suggested that its effects were
   theoretically much greater than better-known sources of greenhouse
   gasses like carbon dioxide. As NF[3] was not in widespread use at the
   time, it was not made part of the Kyoto Protocols and has been deemed
   "the missing greenhouse gas".^[178]

   Critics of the report point out that it assumes that all of the NF[3]
   produced would be released to the atmosphere. In reality, the vast
   majority of NF[3] is broken down during the cleaning processes; two
   earlier studies found that only 2 to 3% of the gas escapes destruction
   after its use.^[179] Furthermore, the report failed to compare NF[3]'s
   effects with what it replaced, perfluorocarbon, another powerful
   greenhouse gas, of which anywhere from 30 to 70% escapes to the
   atmosphere in typical use.^[179]

See also[edit]

     * Transflective liquid-crystal display
     * Flat-panel display
     * FPD-Link
     * LCD classification
     * LCD projector
     * LCD television
     * List of liquid-crystal-display manufacturers
     * Boogie board (product) / Remarkable (tablet)
     * Raw monitor
     * Smartglasses

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External links[edit]

   Wikimedia Commons has media related to Liquid crystal displays.

     * LCD Monitor Teardown - engineerguyvideo on YouTube
     * History and Physical Properties of Liquid Crystals by
       Nobelprize.org Archived August 30, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
     * Definitions of basic terms relating to low-molar-mass and polymer
       liquid crystals (IUPAC Recommendations 2001)
     * An intelligible introduction to liquid crystals from Case Western
       Reserve University
     * Liquid Crystal Physics tutorial from the Liquid Crystals Group,
       University of Colorado
     * What's an IPS Display from Newhaven Display
     * Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals a journal by Taylor and
       Francis
     * How TFT-LCDs are made, by AUO Archived March 8, 2021, at the
       Wayback Machine
     * How LTPS (Low Temperature Poly Silicon) LCDs are made, by AUO
       Archived June 6, 2021, at the Wayback Machine

  General information[edit]

     * Development of Liquid Crystal Displays: Interview with George Gray,
       Hull University, 2004 - Video by the Vega Science Trust.
     * Timothy J. Sluckin History of Liquid Crystals, a presentation and
       extracts from the book Crystals that Flow: Classic papers from the
       history of liquid crystals.
     * David Dunmur & Tim Sluckin (2011) Soap, Science, and Flat-screen
       TVs: a history of liquid crystals, Oxford University Press

   ISBN 978-0-19-954940-5.

     Oleg Artamonov (January 23, 2007). "Contemporary LCD Monitor
   Parameters: Objective and Subjective Analysis". X-bit labs. Archived
   from the original on May 16, 2008. Retrieved May 17, 2008.

     Overview of 3LCD technology, Presentation Technology

     Animations explaining operation of LCD panels

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          + ALiS

   Current
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          + CEA-861
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   Related articles

     * History of display technology
     * Large-screen television technology
     * Optimum HDTV viewing distance
     * High Dynamic Range (HDR)
     * Color Light Output
     * Flexible display
     * Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays

   Comparison of display technology

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