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History of operating systems
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History of computing
Hardware
* Hardware before 1960
* Hardware 1960s to present
Software
* Software
* Unix
* Free software and open-source software
Computer science
* Artificial intelligence
* Compiler construction
* Early computer science
* Operating systems
* Programming languages
* Prominent pioneers
* Software engineering
Modern concepts
* General-purpose CPUs
* Graphical user interface
* Internet
* Laptops
* Personal computers
* Video games
* World Wide Web
By country
* Bulgaria
* Poland
* Romania
* Soviet Bloc
* Soviet Union
* Yugoslavia
Timeline of computing
* before 1950
* 1950-1979
* 1980-1989
* 1990-1999
* 2000-2009
* 2010-2019
* 2020-2029
* more timelines ...
Glossary of computer science
* Category Category
* v
* t
* e
Computer operating systems (OSes) provide a set of functions needed and
used by most application programs on a computer, and the links needed
to control and synchronize computer hardware. On the first computers,
with no operating system, every program needed the full hardware
specification to run correctly and perform standard tasks, and its own
drivers for peripheral devices like printers and punched paper card
readers. The growing complexity of hardware and application programs
eventually made operating systems a necessity for everyday use.
[ ]
Contents
* 1 Background
* 2 Mainframes
+ 2.1 Systems on IBM hardware
+ 2.2 Other mainframe operating systems
* 3 Minicomputers
* 4 Microcomputers
+ 4.1 Home computers
+ 4.2 Operating systems in video games and consoles
+ 4.3 Personal computer era
+ 4.4 Mobile operating systems
* 5 Rise of virtualization
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 References
* 9 Further reading
Background[edit]
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The earliest computers were mainframes that lacked any form of
operating system. Each user had sole use of the machine for a scheduled
period of time and would arrive at the computer with program and data,
often on punched paper cards and magnetic or paper tape. The program
would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work
until the program completed or crashed. Programs could generally be
debugged via a control panel using dials, toggle switches and panel
lights.
Symbolic languages, assemblers,^[1]^[2]^[3] and compilers were
developed for programmers to translate symbolic program-code into
machine code that previously would have been hand-encoded. Later
machines came with libraries of support code on punched cards or
magnetic tape, which would be linked to the user's program to assist in
operations such as input and output. This was the genesis of the
modern-day operating system; however, machines still ran a single job
at a time. At Cambridge University in England the job queue was at one
time a washing line from which tapes were hung with different colored
clothes-pegs to indicate job-priority.^[citation needed]
As machines became more powerful the time to run programs diminished,
and the time to hand off the equipment to the next user became large by
comparison. Accounting for and paying for machine usage moved on from
checking the wall clock to automatic logging by the computer. Run
queues evolved from a literal queue of people at the door, to a heap of
media on a jobs-waiting table, or batches of punch-cards stacked one on
top of the other in the reader, until the machine itself was able to
select and sequence which magnetic tape drives processed which tapes.
Where program developers had originally had access to run their own
jobs on the machine, they were supplanted by dedicated machine
operators who looked after the machine and were less and less concerned
with implementing tasks manually. When commercially available computer
centers were faced with the implications of data lost through tampering
or operational errors, equipment vendors were put under pressure to
enhance the runtime libraries to prevent misuse of system resources.
Automated monitoring was needed not just for CPU usage but for counting
pages printed, cards punched, cards read, disk storage used and for
signaling when operator intervention was required by jobs such as
changing magnetic tapes and paper forms. Security features were added
to operating systems to record audit trails of which programs were
accessing which files and to prevent access to a production payroll
file by an engineering program, for example.
All these features were building up towards the repertoire of a fully
capable operating system. Eventually the runtime libraries became an
amalgamated program that was started before the first customer job and
could read in the customer job, control its execution, record its
usage, reassign hardware resources after the job ended, and immediately
go on to process the next job. These resident background programs,
capable of managing multi step processes, were often called monitors or
monitor-programs before the term "operating system" established itself.
An underlying program offering basic hardware-management,
software-scheduling and resource-monitoring may seem a remote ancestor
to the user-oriented OSes of the personal computing era. But there has
been a shift in the meaning of OS. Just as early automobiles lacked
speedometers, radios, and air-conditioners which later became standard,
more and more optional software features became standard features in
every OS package, although some applications such as database
management systems and spreadsheets remain optional and separately
priced. This has led to the perception of an OS as a complete
user-system with an integrated graphical user interface, utilities,
some applications such as text editors and file managers, and
configuration tools.
The true descendant of the early operating systems is what is now
called the "kernel". In technical and development circles the old
restricted sense of an OS persists because of the continued active
development of embedded operating systems for all kinds of devices with
a data-processing component, from hand-held gadgets up to industrial
robots and real-time control-systems, which do not run user
applications at the front-end. An embedded OS in a device today is not
so far removed as one might think from its ancestor of the 1950s.
The broader categories of systems and application software are
discussed in the computer software article.
Mainframes[edit]
The first operating system used for real work was GM-NAA I/O, produced
in 1956 by General Motors' Research division^[4] for its IBM
704.^[5]^[specify] Most other early operating systems for IBM
mainframes were also produced by customers.^[6]
Early operating systems were very diverse, with each vendor or customer
producing one or more operating systems specific to their particular
mainframe computer. Every operating system, even from the same vendor,
could have radically different models of commands, operating
procedures, and such facilities as debugging aids. Typically, each time
the manufacturer brought out a new machine, there would be a new
operating system, and most applications would have to be manually
adjusted, recompiled, and retested.
Systems on IBM hardware[edit]
Main article: History of IBM mainframe operating systems
The state of affairs continued until the 1960s when IBM, already a
leading hardware vendor, stopped work on existing systems and put all
its effort into developing the System/360 series of machines, all of
which used the same instruction and input/output architecture. IBM
intended to develop a single operating system for the new hardware, the
OS/360. The problems encountered in the development of the OS/360 are
legendary, and are described by Fred Brooks in The Mythical
Man-Month--a book that has become a classic of software engineering.
Because of performance differences across the hardware range and delays
with software development, a whole family of operating systems was
introduced instead of a single OS/360.^[7]^[8]
IBM wound up releasing a series of stop-gaps followed by two
longer-lived operating systems:
* OS/360 for mid-range and large systems. This was available in three
system generation options:
+ PCP for early users and for those without the resources for
multiprogramming.
+ MFT for mid-range systems, replaced by MFT-II in OS/360
Release 15/16. This had one successor, OS/VS1, which was
discontinued in the 1980s.
+ MVT for large systems. This was similar in most ways to PCP
and MFT (most programs could be ported among the three without
being re-compiled), but has more sophisticated memory
management and a time-sharing facility, TSO. MVT had several
successors including the current z/OS.
* DOS/360 for small System/360 models had several successors
including the current z/VSE. It was significantly different from
OS/360.
IBM maintained full compatibility with the past, so that programs
developed in the sixties can still run under z/VSE (if developed for
DOS/360) or z/OS (if developed for MFT or MVT) with no change.
IBM also developed TSS/360, a time-sharing system for the System/360
Model 67. Overcompensating for their perceived importance of developing
a timeshare system, they set hundreds of developers to work on the
project. Early releases of TSS were slow and unreliable; by the time
TSS had acceptable performance and reliability, IBM wanted its TSS
users to migrate to OS/360 and OS/VS2; while IBM offered a TSS/370
PRPQ, they dropped it after 3 releases.^[9]
Several operating systems for the IBM S/360 and S/370 architectures
were developed by third parties, including the Michigan Terminal System
(MTS) and MUSIC/SP.
Other mainframe operating systems[edit]
Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating systems^[NB 1]
in the 1960s, for batch processing and later developed the MACE
operating system for time sharing, which was the basis for the later
Kronos. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos and
later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which
supported simultaneous batch and time sharing use. Like many commercial
time sharing systems, its interface was an extension of the DTSS time
sharing system, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and
programming languages.
In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois
developed the PLATO system, which used plasma panel displays and
long-distance time sharing networks. PLATO was remarkably innovative
for its time; the shared memory model of PLATO's TUTOR programming
language allowed applications such as real-time chat and multi-user
graphical games.
For the UNIVAC 1107, UNIVAC, the first commercial computer
manufacturer, produced the EXEC I operating system, and Computer
Sciences Corporation developed the EXEC II operating system and
delivered it to UNIVAC. EXEC II was ported to the UNIVAC 1108. Later,
UNIVAC developed the EXEC 8 operating system for the 1108; it was the
basis for operating systems for later members of the family. Like all
early mainframe systems, EXEC I and EXEC II were a batch-oriented
system that managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line
printers; EXEC 8 supported both batch processing and on-line
transaction processing. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time
Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing, also patterned
after the Dartmouth BASIC system.
Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 in 1961 with the MCP (Master
Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine
designed to exclusively support high-level languages, with no software,
not even at the lowest level of the operating system, being written
directly in machine language or assembly language; the MCP was the
first^[citation needed] OS to be written entirely in a high-level
language - ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL 60 - although ESPOL had
specialized statements for each "syllable"^[NB 2] in the B5000
instruction set. MCP also introduced many other ground-breaking
innovations, such as being one of^[NB 3] the first commercial
implementations of virtual memory. The rewrite of MCP for the B6500 is
still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath/MCP line of computers.
GE introduced the GE-600 series with the General Electric Comprehensive
Operating Supervisor (GECOS) operating system in 1962. After Honeywell
acquired GE's computer business, it was renamed to General
Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS). Honeywell expanded the use of
the GCOS name to cover all its operating systems in the 1970s, though
many of its computers had nothing in common with the earlier GE 600
series and their operating systems were not derived from the original
GECOS.
Project MAC at MIT, working with GE and Bell Labs, developed Multics,
which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels.
Digital Equipment Corporation developed TOPS-10 for its PDP-10 line of
36-bit computers in 1967. Before the widespread use of Unix, TOPS-10
was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early
ARPANET community. Bolt, Beranek, and Newman developed TENEX for a
modified PDP-10 that supported demand paging; this was another popular
system in the research and ARPANET communities, and was later developed
by DEC into TOPS-20.
Scientific Data Systems/Xerox Data Systems developed several operating
systems for the Sigma series of computers, such as the Basic Control
Monitor (BCM), Batch Processing Monitor (BPM), and Basic Time-Sharing
Monitor (BTM). Later, BPM and BTM were succeeded by the Universal
Time-Sharing System (UTS); it was designed to provide multi-programming
services for online (interactive) user programs in addition to
batch-mode production jobs, It was succeeded by the CP-V operating
system, which combined UTS with the heavily batch-oriented Xerox
Operating System.
Minicomputers[edit]
Digital Equipment Corporation created several operating systems for its
16-bit PDP-11 machines, including the simple RT-11 system, the
time-sharing RSTS operating systems, and the RSX-11 family of real-time
operating systems, as well as the VMS system for the 32-bit VAX
machines.
Several competitors of Digital Equipment Corporation such as Data
General, Hewlett-Packard, and Computer Automation created their own
operating systems. One such, "MAX III", was developed for Modular
Computer Systems Modcomp II and Modcomp III computers. It was
characterised by its target market being the industrial control market.
The Fortran libraries included one that enabled access to measurement
and control devices.
IBM's key innovation in operating systems in this class (which they
call "mid-range"), was their "CPF" for the System/38. This had
capability-based addressing, used a machine interface architecture to
isolate the application software and most of the operating system from
hardware dependencies (including even such details as address size and
register size) and included an integrated RDBMS. The succeeding OS/400
for the AS/400 has no files, only objects of different types and these
objects persist in very large, flat virtual memory, called a
single-level store. i5/OS and later IBM i for the iSeries continue this
line of operating system.
The Unix operating system was developed at AT&T Bell Laboratories in
the late 1960s, originally for the PDP-7, and later for the PDP-11.
Because it was essentially free in early editions, easily obtainable,
and easily modified, it achieved wide acceptance. It also became a
requirement within the Bell systems operating companies. Since it was
written in the C language, when that language was ported to a new
machine architecture, Unix was also able to be ported. This portability
permitted it to become the choice for a second generation of
minicomputers and the first generation of workstations. By widespread
use it exemplified the idea of an operating system that was
conceptually the same across various hardware platforms, and later
became one of the roots of free software and open-source software
operating system projects including GNU, Linux, and the Berkeley
Software Distribution. Apple's macOS is also based on Unix via
NeXTSTEP^[10] and FreeBSD.^[11]
The Pick operating system was another operating system available on a
wide variety of hardware brands. Commercially released in 1973 its core
was a BASIC-like language called Data/BASIC and a SQL-style database
manipulation language called ENGLISH. Licensed to a large variety of
manufacturers and vendors, by the early 1980s observers saw the Pick
operating system as a strong competitor to Unix.^[12]
Microcomputers[edit]
Beginning in the mid-1970s, a new class of small computers came onto
the marketplace. Featuring 8-bit processors, typically the MOS
Technology 6502, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800 or the Zilog Z80, along with
rudimentary input and output interfaces and as much RAM as practical,
these systems started out as kit-based hobbyist computers but soon
evolved into an essential business tool.
Home computers[edit]
While many eight-bit home computers of the 1980s, such as the BBC
Micro, Commodore 64, Apple II series, the Atari 8-bit, the Amstrad CPC,
ZX Spectrum series and others could load a third-party disk-loading
operating system, such as CP/M or GEOS, they were generally used
without one. Their built-in operating systems were designed in an era
when floppy disk drives were very expensive and not expected to be used
by most users, so the standard storage device on most was a tape drive
using standard compact cassettes. Most, if not all, of these computers
shipped with a built-in BASIC interpreter on ROM, which also served as
a crude command line interface, allowing the user to load a separate
disk operating system to perform file management commands and load and
save to disk. The most popular^[citation needed] home computer, the
Commodore 64, was a notable exception, as its DOS was on ROM in the
disk drive hardware, and the drive was addressed identically to
printers, modems, and other external devices.
Furthermore, those systems shipped with minimal amounts of computer
memory--4-8 kilobytes was standard on early home computers--as well as
8-bit processors without specialized support circuitry like an MMU or
even a dedicated real-time clock. On this hardware, a complex operating
system's overhead supporting multiple tasks and users would likely
compromise the performance of the machine without really being needed.
As those systems were largely sold complete, with a fixed hardware
configuration, there was also no need for an operating system to
provide drivers for a wide range of hardware to abstract away
differences.
Video games and even the available spreadsheet, database and word
processors for home computers were mostly self-contained programs that
took over the machine completely. Although integrated software existed
for these computers, they usually lacked features compared to their
standalone equivalents, largely due to memory limitations. Data
exchange was mostly performed through standard formats like ASCII text
or CSV, or through specialized file conversion programs.
Operating systems in video games and consoles[edit]
Since virtually all video game consoles and arcade cabinets designed
and built after 1980 were true digital machines based on
microprocessors (unlike the earlier Pong clones and derivatives), some
of them carried a minimal form of BIOS or built-in game, such as the
ColecoVision, the Sega Master System and the SNK Neo Geo.
Modern-day game consoles and videogames, starting with the PC-Engine,
all have a minimal BIOS that also provides some interactive utilities
such as memory card management, audio or video CD playback, copy
protection and sometimes carry libraries for developers to use etc. Few
of these cases, however, would qualify as a true operating system.
The most notable exceptions are probably the Dreamcast game console
which includes a minimal BIOS, like the PlayStation, but can load the
Windows CE operating system from the game disk allowing easily porting
of games from the PC world, and the Xbox game console, which is little
more than a disguised Intel-based PC running a secret, modified version
of Microsoft Windows in the background. Furthermore, there are Linux
versions that will run on a Dreamcast and later game consoles as well.
Long before that, Sony had released a kind of development kit called
the Net Yaroze for its first PlayStation platform, which provided a
series of programming and developing tools to be used with a normal PC
and a specially modified "Black PlayStation" that could be interfaced
with a PC and download programs from it. These operations require in
general a functional OS on both platforms involved.
In general, it can be said that videogame consoles and arcade
coin-operated machines used at most a built-in BIOS during the 1970s,
1980s and most of the 1990s, while from the PlayStation era and beyond
they started getting more and more sophisticated, to the point of
requiring a generic or custom-built OS for aiding in development and
expandability.
Personal computer era[edit]
The development of microprocessors made inexpensive computing available
for the small business and hobbyist, which in turn led to the
widespread use of interchangeable hardware components using a common
interconnection (such as the S-100, SS-50, Apple II, ISA, and PCI
buses), and an increasing need for "standard" operating systems to
control them. The most important of the early OSes on these machines
was Digital Research's CP/M-80 for the 8080 / 8085 / Z-80 CPUs. It was
based on several Digital Equipment Corporation operating systems,
mostly for the PDP-11 architecture. Microsoft's first operating system,
MDOS/MIDAS, was designed along many of the PDP-11 features, but for
microprocessor based systems. MS-DOS, or PC DOS when supplied by IBM,
was designed to be similar to CP/M-80.^[13] Each of these machines had
a small boot program in ROM which loaded the OS itself from disk. The
BIOS on the IBM-PC class machines was an extension of this idea and has
accreted more features and functions in the 20 years since the first
IBM-PC was introduced in 1981.
The decreasing cost of display equipment and processors made it
practical to provide graphical user interfaces for many operating
systems, such as the generic X Window System that is provided with many
Unix systems, or other graphical systems such as Apple's classic Mac OS
and macOS, the Radio Shack Color Computer's OS-9 Level II/MultiVue,
Commodore's AmigaOS, Atari TOS, IBM's OS/2, and Microsoft Windows. The
original GUI was developed on the Xerox Alto computer system at Xerox
Palo Alto Research Center in the early 1970s and commercialized by many
vendors throughout the 1980s and 1990s.
Since the late 1990s, there have been three operating systems in
widespread use on personal computers: Apple Inc.'s macOS, the open
source Linux, and Microsoft Windows. Since 2005 and the Mac transition
to Intel processors, all have been developed mainly on the x86
platform, although macOS retained PowerPC support until 2009 and Linux
remains ported to a multitude of architectures including ones such as
68k, PA-RISC, and DEC Alpha, which have been long superseded and out of
production, and SPARC and MIPS, which are used in servers or embedded
systems but no longer for desktop computers. Other operating systems
such as AmigaOS and OS/2 remain in use, if at all, mainly by
retrocomputing enthusiasts or for specialized embedded applications.
Mobile operating systems[edit]
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section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may
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Android is the most used mobile operating system.
In the early 1990s, Psion released the Psion Series 3 PDA, a small
mobile computing device. It supported user-written applications running
on an operating system called EPOC. Later versions of EPOC became
Symbian, an operating system used for mobile phones from Nokia,
Ericsson, Sony Ericsson, Motorola, Samsung and phones developed for NTT
Docomo by Sharp, Fujitsu & Mitsubishi. Symbian was the world's most
widely used smartphone operating system until 2010 with a peak market
share of 74% in 2006. In 1996, Palm Computing released the Pilot 1000
and Pilot 5000, running Palm OS. Microsoft Windows CE was the base for
Pocket PC 2000, renamed Windows Mobile in 2003, which at its peak in
2007 was the most common operating system for smartphones in the U.S.
In 2007, Apple introduced the iPhone and its operating system, known as
simply iPhone OS (until the release of iOS 4), which, like Mac OS X, is
based on the Unix-like Darwin. In addition to these underpinnings, it
also introduced a powerful and innovative graphic user interface that
was later also used on the tablet computer iPad. A year later, Android,
with its own graphical user interface, was introduced, based on a
modified Linux kernel, and Microsoft re-entered the mobile operating
system market with Windows Phone in 2010, which was replaced by Windows
10 Mobile in 2015.
In addition to these, a wide range of other mobile operating systems
are contending in this area.
Rise of virtualization[edit]
Operating systems originally ran directly on the hardware itself and
provided services to applications, but with virtualization, the
operating system itself runs under the control of a hypervisor, instead
of being in direct control of the hardware.
On mainframes IBM introduced the notion of a virtual machine in 1968
with CP/CMS on the IBM System/360 Model 67, and extended this later in
1972 with Virtual Machine Facility/370 (VM/370) on System/370.
On x86-based personal computers, VMware popularized this technology
with their 1999 product, VMware Workstation,^[14] and their 2001 VMware
GSX Server and VMware ESX Server products.^[15] Later, a wide range of
products from others, including Xen, KVM and Hyper-V meant that by 2010
it was reported that more than 80 percent of enterprises had a
virtualization program or project in place, and that 25 percent of all
server workloads would be in a virtual machine.^[16]
Over time, the line between virtual machines, monitors, and operating
systems was blurred:
* Hypervisors grew more complex, gaining their own application
programming interface,^[17] memory management or file system.^[18]
* Virtualization becomes a key feature of operating systems, as
exemplified by KVM and LXC in Linux, Hyper-V in Windows Server 2008
or HP Integrity Virtual Machines in HP-UX.
* In some systems, such as POWER5 and POWER6-based servers from IBM,
the hypervisor is no longer optional.^[19]
* Radically simplified operating systems, such as CoreOS have been
designed to run only on virtual systems.^[20]
* Applications have been re-designed to run directly on a virtual
machine monitor.^[21]
In many ways, virtual machine software today plays the role formerly
held by the operating system, including managing the hardware resources
(processor, memory, I/O devices), applying scheduling policies, or
allowing system administrators to manage the system.
See also[edit]
* icon Computer programming portal
* Charles Babbage Institute
* IT History Society
* List of operating systems
* Timeline of operating systems
* History of computer icons
Notes[edit]
1. ^ CDC used the SCOPE name for disparate operating systems on the
upper 3000 series, the lower 3000 series, the 6000 series and the
7600
2. ^ A syllable in the B5000 could contain a 10-bit literal, an
operand call, a descriptor call or a 10-bit opcode.
3. ^ The B5000 was contemporaneous with the Ferranti Atlas
References[edit]
1. ^ 705 Autocoder System Macro Instruction Manual (PDF) (second ed.),
February 1957, 22-6726-1
2. ^ The USE Compiler Programming Manual for the UNIVAC Scientific
1103A and 1105 Computers (PDF)
3. ^ A Programmer's Guide to the X-6 Assembly System (PDF), U 1774.1
4. ^ Robert Patrick (January 1987). "General Motors/North American
Monitor for the IBM 704 Computer" (PDF). RAND Corporation.
5. ^ "Timeline of Computer History: 1956: Software". Computer History
Museum. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
6. ^ "A Brief History of Linux". Archived from the original on
2017-11-07. Retrieved 2017-11-05.
7. ^ Johnston (April 1, 2005). "VSE: A Look at the Past 40 Years".
z/Journal. Thomas Communications, Inc. (April/May 2005). Archived
from the original on March 4, 2009.
8. ^ Chuck Boyer, The 360 Revolution
9. ^ "IBM 360/370/3090/390". Lars Poulsen, 26 Oct. 2001, Computer
History. Retrieved 18 November 2015.
10. ^ Chris Foresman (19 December 2012). "The legacy of NeXT lives on
in OS X".
11. ^ "Apple's Operating System Guru Goes Back to His Roots", Klint
Finley, 8 August 2013, wired.com
12. ^ Fiedler, Ryan (October 1983). "The Unix Tutorial / Part 3: Unix
in the Microcomputer Marketplace". BYTE. p. 132. Retrieved 30
January 2015.
13. ^ Bob Zeidman (August 6, 2016). "Was DOS copied from CP/M?".
14. ^ "VMware company history". Archived from the original on
2011-04-16.
15. ^ "VMware ready to capitalize on hot server market". June 30, 2000.
16. ^ "Gartner: 1 in 4 server workloads will be virtual by year-end",
Sep 27 2010, Jon Brodkin, Network World
17. ^ "VMware API". VMware. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
18. ^ "VMware file system". Retrieved 26 November 2008.
19. ^ "PowerVM Virtualization on IBM System p: Introduction and
Configuration". Retrieved 26 November 2008.
20. ^ "Snappy Ubuntu challenges CoreOS and Project Atomic on
lightweight cloud servers", Dec 10, 2014, Steven J.
Vaughan-Nichols, ZDNet.com
21. ^ "JRockit's Liquid VM could be the first real Java OS". Retrieved
26 November 2008.
Further reading[edit]
*
Neal Stephenson (1999). In the Beginning... Was the Command Line.
Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-380-81593-1.
* v
* t
* e
Operating systems
General
* Advocacy
* Comparison
* Forensic engineering
* History
* Hobbyist development
* List
* Timeline
* Usage share
Variants
* Disk operating system
* Distributed operating system
* Embedded operating system
* Mobile operating system
* Network operating system
* Object-oriented operating system
* Real-time operating system
* Supercomputer operating system
Kernel
Architectures
* Exokernel
* Hybrid
* Microkernel
* Monolithic
* vkernel
* Rump kernel
* Unikernel
Components
* Device driver
* Loadable kernel module
* Microkernel
* User space
Process management
Concepts
* Computer multitasking (Cooperative, Preemptive)
* Context switch
* Interrupt
* IPC
* Process
* Process control block
* Real-time
* Thread
* Time-sharing
Scheduling
algorithms
* Fixed-priority preemptive
* Multilevel feedback queue
* Round-robin
* Shortest job next
Memory management,
resource protection
* Bus error
* General protection fault
* Memory protection
* Paging
* Protection ring
* Segmentation fault
* Virtual memory
Storage access,
file systems
* Boot loader
* Defragmentation
* Device file
* File attribute
* Inode
* Journal
* Partition
* Virtual file system
* Virtual tape library
Supporting concepts
* API
* Computer network
* HAL
* Live CD
* Live USB
* OS shell
+ CLI
+ GUI
+ 3D GUI
+ NUI
+ TUI
+ VUI
+ ZUI
* PXE
Retrieved from
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* This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 19:53 (UTC).
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