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Electronic waste
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Defective and obsolete electronic equipment
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Electronic waste or e-waste describes discarded electrical or
electronic devices. Used electronics which are destined for
refurbishment, reuse, resale, salvage recycling through material
recovery, or disposal are also considered e-waste. Informal processing
of e-waste in developing countries can lead to adverse human health
effects and environmental pollution.
Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs, contain potentially harmful
materials such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame
retardants. Recycling and disposal of e-waste may involve significant
risk to health of workers and their communities.^[1]
[ ]
Contents
* 1 Definition
* 2 Quantity
+ 2.1 E-waste data 2016
+ 2.2 E-waste data 2019
* 3 E-waste legislative frameworks
+ 3.1 The Solving the E-waste Problem (StEP) initiative
+ 3.2 Waste electrical and electronic equipment
+ 3.3 European Commission legislation on batteries and
accumulators (Batteries Directive)
+ 3.4 European Union regulations on e-waste
+ 3.5 International agreements
* 4 Global trade issues
+ 4.1 Trade
+ 4.2 Guiyu
+ 4.3 Other informal e-waste recycling sites
+ 4.4 Cryptocurrency e-waste
* 5 Environmental impact
* 6 Research
* 7 Information security
* 8 Recycling
+ 8.1 Consumer awareness efforts
+ 8.2 Processing techniques
+ 8.3 Benefits of recycling
* 9 Repair as waste reduction method
* 10 Electronic waste classification
* 11 Electronic waste substances
+ 11.1 Hazardous
+ 11.2 Generally non-hazardous
* 12 Human health and safety
+ 12.1 Residents living near recycling sites
o 12.1.1 Prenatal exposure and neonates' health
o 12.1.2 Children
+ 12.2 E-waste recycling workers
o 12.2.1 Informal and formal industries
o 12.2.2 Hazard controls
* 13 See also
* 14 References
* 15 Further reading
* 16 External links
Definition[edit]
Hoarding (first), disassembling (second) and collecting (third)
electronic waste in Bengaluru, India
E-waste or electronic waste is created when an electronic product is
discarded after the end of its useful life. The rapid expansion of
technology and the consumption driven society results in the creation
of a very large amount of e-waste.
In the US, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
classifies waste into ten categories:
1. Large household appliances, including cooling and freezing
appliances
2. Small household appliances
3. IT equipment, including monitors
4. Consumer electronics, including televisions
5. Lamps and luminaires
6. Toys
7. Tools
8. Medical devices
9. Monitoring and control instruments and
10. Automatic dispensers
These include used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale,
salvage, recycling, or disposal as well as re-usables (working and
repairable electronics) and secondary raw materials (copper, steel,
plastic, or similar). The term "waste" is reserved for residue or
material which is dumped by the buyer rather than recycled, including
residue from reuse and recycling operations, because loads of surplus
electronics are frequently commingled (good, recyclable, and
non-recyclable). Several public policy advocates apply the term
"e-waste" and "e-scrap" broadly to apply to all surplus electronics.
Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are considered one of the hardest types to
recycle.^[2]
Using a different set of categories, the Partnership on Measuring ICT
for Development defines e-waste in six categories:
1. Temperature exchange equipment (such as air conditioners, freezers)
2. Screens, monitors (TVs, laptops)
3. Lamps (LED lamps, for example)
4. Large equipment (washing machines, electric stoves)
5. Small equipment (microwaves, electric shavers) and
6. Small IT and telecommunication equipment (such as mobile phones,
printers)
Products in each category vary in longevity profile, impact, and
collection methods, among other differences.^[3]
CRTs have a relatively high concentration of lead and phosphors (not to
be confused with phosphorus), both of which are necessary for the
display. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
includes discarded CRT monitors in its category of "hazardous household
waste"^[4] but considers CRTs that have been set aside for testing to
be commodities if they are not discarded, speculatively accumulated, or
left unprotected from weather and other damage. These CRT devices are
often confused between the DLP Rear Projection TV, both of which have a
different recycling process due to the materials of which they are
composed.
The EU and its member states operate a system via the European Waste
Catalogue (EWC) - a European Council Directive, which is interpreted
into "member state law". In the UK, this is in the form of the List of
Wastes Directive. However, the list (and EWC) gives a broad definition
(EWC Code 16 02 13*) of what is hazardous electronic waste, requiring
"waste operators" to employ the Hazardous Waste Regulations (Annex 1A,
Annex 1B) for refined definition. Constituent materials in the waste
also require assessment via the combination of Annex II and Annex III,
again allowing operators to further determine whether a waste is
hazardous.^[5]
Debate continues over the distinction between "commodity" and "waste"
electronics definitions. Some exporters are accused of deliberately
leaving difficult-to-recycle, obsolete, or non-repairable equipment
mixed in loads of working equipment (though this may also come through
ignorance, or to avoid more costly treatment processes). Protectionists
may broaden the definition of "waste" electronics in order to protect
domestic markets from working secondary equipment.
The high value of the computer recycling subset of electronic waste
(working and reusable laptops, desktops, and components like RAM) can
help pay the cost of transportation for a larger number of worthless
pieces than what can be achieved with display devices, which have less
(or negative) scrap value. In A 2011 report, "Ghana E-Waste Country
Assessment",^[6] found that of 215,000 tons of electronics imported to
Ghana, 30% were brand new and 70% were used. Of the used product, the
study concluded that 15% was not reused and was scrapped or discarded.
This contrasts with published but uncredited claims that 80% of the
imports into Ghana were being burned in primitive conditions.
Quantity[edit]
A fragment of a discarded circuit board.
E-waste is considered the "fastest-growing waste stream in the
world"^[7] with 44.7 million tonnes generated in 2016- equivalent to
4500 Eiffel towers.^[3] In 2018, an estimated 50 million tonnes of
e-waste was reported, thus the name `tsunami of e-waste' given by the
UN.^[7] Its value is at least $62.5 billion annually.^[7]
Rapid changes in technology, changes in media (tapes, software, MP3),
falling prices, and planned obsolescence have resulted in a
fast-growing surplus of electronic waste around the globe. Technical
solutions are available, but in most cases, a legal framework, a
collection, logistics, and other services need to be implemented before
a technical solution can be applied.
Display units (CRT, LCD, LED monitors), processors (CPU, GPU, or APU
chips), memory (DRAM or SRAM), and audio components have different
useful lives. Processors are most frequently out-dated (by software no
longer being optimized) and are more likely to become "e-waste" while
display units are most often replaced while working without repair
attempts, due to changes in wealthy nation appetites for new display
technology. This problem could potentially be solved with modular
smartphones (such as the Phonebloks concept). These types of phones are
more durable and have the technology to change certain parts of the
phone making them more environmentally friendly. Being able to simply
replace the part of the phone that is broken will reduce e-waste.^[8]
An estimated 50 million tons of E-waste are produced each year.^[9] The
USA discards 30 million computers each year and 100 million phones are
disposed of in Europe each year. The Environmental Protection Agency
estimates that only 15-20% of e-waste is recycled, the rest of these
electronics go directly into landfills and incinerators.^[10]^[11]
Electronic waste at Agbogbloshie, Ghana
In 2006, the United Nations estimated the amount of worldwide
electronic waste discarded each year to be 50 million metric tons.^[12]
According to a report by UNEP titled, "Recycling - from E-Waste to
Resources," the amount of e-waste being produced - including mobile
phones and computers - could rise by as much as 500 percent over the
next decade in some countries, such as India.^[13] The United States is
the world leader in producing electronic waste, tossing away about 3
million tons each year.^[14] China already produces about 2.3 million
tons (2010 estimate) domestically, second only to the United States.
And, despite having banned e-waste imports. China remains a major
e-waste dumping ground for developed countries.^[14]
An iPhone with a damaged screen
Society today revolves around technology and by the constant need for
the newest and most high-tech products we are contributing to a mass
amount of e-waste.^[15] Since the invention of the iPhone, cell phones
have become the top source of e-waste products because they are not
made to last more than two years.^[citation needed] Electrical waste
contains hazardous but also valuable and scarce materials. Up to 60
elements can be found in complex electronics.^[16] As of 2013, Apple
has sold over 796 million iDevices (iPod, iPhone, iPad). Cell phone
companies make cell phones that are not made to last so that the
consumer will purchase new phones. Companies give these products such
short lifespans because they know that the consumer will want a new
product and will buy it if they make it.^[17]^[better source needed] In
the United States, an estimated 70% of heavy metals in landfills comes
from discarded electronics.^[18]^[19]
While there is agreement that the number of discarded electronic
devices is increasing, there is considerable disagreement about the
relative risk (compared to automobile scrap, for example), and strong
disagreement whether curtailing trade in used electronics will improve
conditions, or make them worse. According to an article in Motherboard,
attempts to restrict the trade have driven reputable companies out of
the supply chain, with unintended consequences.^[20]
E-waste data 2016[edit]
In 2016, Asia was the territory that brought about by significant the
most extensive volume of e-waste (18.2 Mt), accompanied by Europe (12.3
metric tons), America (11.3 metric tons), Africa (2.2 metric tons), and
Oceania (0.7 metric tons). The smallest in terms of total e-waste made,
Oceania was the largest generator of e-waste per capita
(17.3 kg/inhabitant), with hardly 6% of e-waste cited to be gathered
and recycled. Europe is the second broadest generator of e-waste per
citizen, with an average of 16.6 kg/inhabitant; however, Europe bears
the loftiest assemblage figure (35%). America generates
11.6 kg/inhabitant and solicits only 17% of the e-waste caused in the
provinces, which is commensurate with the assortment count in Asia
(15%). However, Asia generates fewer e-waste per citizen
(4,2 kg/inhabitant). Africa generates only 1.9 kg/inhabitant, and
limited information is available on its collection percentage. The
record furnishes regional breakdowns for Africa, Americas, Asia,
Europe, and Oceania. The phenomenon somewhat illustrates the modest
number figure linked to the overall volume of e-waste made that 41
countries have administrator e-waste data. For 16 other countries,
e-waste volumes were collected from exploration and evaluated. The
outcome of a considerable bulk of the e-waste (34.1 Metric tons) is
unidentified. In countries where there is no national e-waste
constitution in the stand, e-waste is possible interpreted as an
alternative or general waste. This is land-filled or recycled, along
with alternative metal or plastic scraps. There is the colossal
compromise that the toxins are not drawn want of accordingly, or they
are chosen want of by an informal sector and converted without well
safeguarding the laborers while venting the contaminations in e-waste.
Although the e-waste claim is on the rise, a flourishing quantity of
countries are embracing e-waste regulation. National e-waste governance
orders enclose 66% of the world population, a rise from 44% that was
reached in 2014^[21]
E-waste data 2019[edit]
In 2019, an enormous volume of e-waste (53.6 Mt, with a 7.3 kg per
capita average) was generated globally. This is projected to increase
to 4.7 Mt by the year 2030. Asia still remains the largest contributor
of a significant volume of electronic waste at 24.9 Mt, followed by the
Americas (13.1 Mt), Europe (12 Mt), and Africa and Oceania at 2.9 Mt
and 0.7 Mt, respectively. In per capita generation, Europe came first
with 16.2 kg, and Oceania was second largest generator at 16.1 kg, and
followed by the Americas. Africa is the least generator of e-waste per
capita at 2.5 kg. Regarding the collection and recycling of these
waste, the continent of Europe ranked first (42.5%), and Asia came
second (11.7%). The Americas and Oceania are next (9.4% and 8.8%
respectively), and Africa trails behind at 0.9%. Out of the 53.6 Metric
tons generated e-waste globally, the formally documented collection and
recycling was 9.3%, and the fate of 44.3% remains uncertain, with its
whereabouts and impact to the environment varying across different
regions of the world. However, the number of countries with national
e-waste legislation, regulation or policy, have increased since 2014,
from 61 to 78. A great proportion of undocumented commercial and
domestic waste get mixed with other streams of waste like plastic and
metal waste, implying that fractions which are easily recyclable might
be recycled, under conditions considered to be inferior without
depollution and recovery of all materials considered valuable. As a
result, it is not the most preferred form of recycling. The management
infrastructure of e-waste in middle- and low-income countries are still
not fully developed, and is absent in some cases. The informal sector
is responsible for the management, at the risk of inferior conditions
of recycling that might cause dire health effects to the workers and
their children, who might live, play and work near sites of e-waste
management.^[22]
E-waste legislative frameworks[edit]
The European Union (EU) has addressed the issue of electronic Waste by
introducing two pieces of legislation. The first, the Waste Electrical
and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) came into force in
2003. [2] The main aim of this directive was to regulate and motivate
electronic waste recycling and re-use in member states at that moment.
It was revised in 2008, coming into force in 2014.[3] Furthermore, the
EU has also implemented the Directive on the restriction of the use of
certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronica equipment
from 2003.[4] This documents was additionally revised in 2012.[5] When
it comes to Western Balkan countries, North Macedonia has adopted a Law
on Batteries and Accumulators in 2010, followed by the Law on
Management of electrical and electronic equipment in 2012. Serbia has
regulated management of special waste stream, including electronic
waste, by National waste management strategy (2010-2019).[6] Montenegro
has adopted Concessionary Act concerning electronic waste with ambition
to collect 4 kg of this waste annually per person until 2020.[7]
Albanian legal framework is based on the draft act on waste from
electrical and electronic equipment from 2011 which focuses on the
design of electrical and electronic equipment. Contrary to this, Bosnia
and Herzegovina is still missing a law regulating electronic waste.
As of October 2019, 78 countries globally have established either a
policy, legislation or specific regulation to govern e-waste.^[23]
However, there is no clear indication that countries are following the
regulations. Regions such as Asia and Africa are having policies that
are not legally binding and rather only programmatic ones.^[24] Hence,
this poses as a challenge that e-waste management policies are yet not
fully developed by globally by countries.
The Solving the E-waste Problem (StEP) initiative[edit]
Solving the E-waste Problem is a membership organization that is part
of United Nations University and was created to develop solutions to
address issues associated with electronic waste. Some of the most
eminent players in the fields of Production, Reuse and Recycling of
Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE), government agencies and NGOs
as well as UN Organisations count themselves among its members. StEP
encourages the collaboration of all stakeholders connected with
e-waste, emphasizing a holistic, scientific yet applicable approach to
the problem.:^[25]
Waste electrical and electronic equipment[edit]
The European Commission (EC) of the EU has classified waste electrical
and electronic equipment (WEEE) as the waste generated from electrical
devices and household appliances like refrigerators, televisions, and
mobile phones and other devices. In 2005 the EU reported total waste of
9 million tonnes and in 2020 estimates waste of 12 million tonnes. This
electronic waste with hazardous materials if not managed properly, may
end up badly affecting our environment and causing fatal health issues.
Disposing of these materials requires a lot of manpower and properly
managed facilities. Not only the disposal, manufacturing of these types
of materials require huge facilities and natural resources (Aluminium,
gold, copper and silicon, etc), ending up damaging our environment and
pollution. Considering the impact of WEEE materials make on our
environment, EU legislation has made two legislations: 1. WEEE
Directive; 2. RoHS Directive: Directive on usage and restrictions of
hazardous materials in producing these Electrical and Electronic
Equipment.
WEEE Directive: This Directive was implemented in February 2003,
focusing on recycling electronic waste. This Directive offered many
electronic waste collection schemes free of charge to the consumers
(Directive 2002/96/EC [8]). The EC revised this Directive in December
2008, since this has become the fastest growing waste stream. In August
2012, the WEEE Directive was rolled out to handle the situation of
controlling electronic waste and this was implemented on 14 February
2014 (Directive 2012/19/EU [9]). On 18 April 2017, the EC adopted a
common principle of carrying out research and implementing a new
regulation to monitor the amount of WEEE. It requires each member state
to monitor and report their national market data. - Annex III to the
WEEE Directive (Directive 2012/19/EU): Re-examination of the timelines
for waste collection and setting up individual targets (Report [10]).
WEEE Legislation: - On 4 July 2012, the EC passed legislation on WEEE
(Directive 2012/19/EU [11]). To know more about the progress in
adopting the Directive 2012/19/EU (Progress [12]). - On 15 February
2014, the EC revised the Directive. To know more about the old
Directive 2002/96/EC, see (Report [13]).
RoHS Directive: In 2003, the EC not only implemented legislation on
waste collection but also on the alternative use of hazardous materials
(Cadmium, mercury, flammable materials, polybrominated biphenyls, lead
and polybrominated diphenyl ethers) used in the production of
electronic and electric equipment (RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC [14]).
This Directive was again revised in December 2008 and later again in
January 2013 (RoHS recast Directive 2011/65/EU [15]). In 2017, the EC
has made adjustment to the existing Directive considering the impact
assessment [16] and adopted to a new legislative proposal [17] (RoHS 2
scope review [18]). On 21 November 2017, the European Parliament and
Council has published this legislation amending the RoHS 2 Directive in
their official journal [19].
European Commission legislation on batteries and accumulators (Batteries
Directive)[edit]
Each year, the EU reports nearly 800 000 tons of batteries from
automotive industry, industrial batteries of around 190 000 tons and
consumer batteries around 160 000 tons entering the Europe region.
These batteries are one of the most commonly used products in household
appliances and other battery powered products in our day-to-day life.
The important issue to look into is how this battery waste is collected
and recycled properly, which has the consequences of resulting in
hazardous materials release into the environment and water resources.
Generally, many parts of these batteries and accumulators / capacitors
can be recycled without releasing these hazardous materials release
into our environment and contaminating our natural resources. The EC
has rolled out a new Directive to control the waste from the batteries
and accumulators known as `Batteries Directive'[20] aiming to improve
the collecting and recycling process of the battery waste and control
the impact of battery waste on our environment. This Directive also
supervises and administers the internal market by implementing required
measures. This Directive restricts the production and marketing of
batteries and accumulators which contains hazardous materials and are
harmful to the environment, difficult to collect and recycle them.
Batteries Directive [21] targets on the collection, recycling and other
recycling activities of batteries and accumulators, also approving
labels to the batteries which are environment neutral. On 10 December
2020, The EC has proposed a new regulation (Batteries Regulation [22])
on the batteries waste which aims to make sure that batteries entering
the European market are recyclable, sustainable and non-hazardous
(Press release [23]).
Legislation: In 2006, the EC has adopted the Batteries Directive and
revised it in 2013. - On 6 September 2006, the European Parliament and
European Council have launched Directives in waste from Batteries and
accumulators (Directive 2006/66/EC [24]). - Overview of Batteries and
accumulators Legislation [25]
Evaluation of Directive 2006/66/EC (Batteries Directive): Revising
Directives could be based on the Evaluation [26] process, considering
the fact of the increase in the usage of batteries with an increase in
the multiple communication technologies, household appliances and other
small battery-powered products. The increase in the demand of renewable
energies and recycling of the products has also led to an initiative
`European Batteries Alliance (EBA)' which aims to supervise the
complete value chain of production of more improved batteries and
accumulators within Europe under this new policy act. Though the
adoption of the Evaluation [27] process has been broadly accepted, few
concerns rose particularly managing and monitoring the use of hazardous
materials in the production of batteries, collection of the battery
waste, recycling of the battery waste within the Directives. The
evaluation process has definitely gave good results in the areas like
controlling the environmental damage, increasing the awareness of
recycling, reusable batteries and also improving the efficiency of the
internal markets.
However, there are few limitations in the implementations of the
Batteries Directive in the process of collecting batteries waste and
recovering the usable materials from them. The evaluation process
throws some light on the gap in this process of implementation and
collaborate technical aspects in the process and new ways to use makes
it more difficult to implement and this Directive maintains the balance
with technological advancements. The EC's regulations and guidelines
has made the evaluation process more impactful in a positive way. The
participation of number of stakeholders in the evaluation process who
are invited and asked to provide their views and ideas to improve the
process of evaluation and information gathering. On 14 March 2018,
stakeholders and members of the association participated to provide
information about their findings, support and increase the process of
Evaluation Roadmap [28].
European Union regulations on e-waste[edit]
The European Union (EU) has addressed the e-waste issue by adopting
several directives. In 2011 an amendment was made to a 2003 Directive
2002/95/EC regarding restriction of the use of hazardous materials in
the planning and manufacturing process in the EEE. In the 2011
Directive, 2011/65/EU it was stated as the motivation for more specific
restriction on the usage of hazardous materials in the planning and
manufacturing process of electronic and electrical devices as there was
a disparity of the EU Member State laws and the need arose to set forth
rules to protect human health and for the environmentally sound
recovery and disposal of WEEE. (2011/65/EU, (2)) The Directive lists
several substances subject to restriction. The Directive states
restricted substances for maximum concentration values tolerated by
weight in homogeneous materials are the following: lead (0.1%); mercury
(0.1%), cadmium (0.1%), hexavalent chromium (0.1%), polybrominated
biphenyls (PBB) (0.1%) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)
(o,1 %). If technologically feasible and substitution is available, the
usage of substitution is required.
There are, however, exemptions in the case in which substitution is not
possible from the scientific and technical point of view. The allowance
and duration of the substitutions should take into account the
availability of the substitute and the socioeconomic impact of the
substitute. (2011/65/EU, (18))
EU Directive 2012/19/EU regulates WEEE and lays down measures to
safeguard the ecosystem and human health by inhibiting or shortening
the impact of the generation and management of waste of WEEE.
(2012/19/EU, (1)) The Directive takes a specific approach to the
product design of EEE. It states in Article 4 that Member States are
under the constraint to expedite the kind of model and manufacturing
process as well as cooperation between producers and recyclers as to
facilitate re-use, dismantling and recovery of WEEE, its components,
and materials. (2012/19/EU, (4)) The Member States should create
measures to make sure the producers of EEE use eco-design, meaning that
the type of manufacturing process is used that would not restrict later
re-use of WEEE. The Directive also gives Member States the obligation
to ensure a separate collection and transportation of different WEEE.
Article 8 lays out the requirements of the proper treatment of WEEE.
The base minimum of proper treatment that is required for every WEEE is
the removal of all liquids. The recovery targets set are seen in the
following figures.
Bu the Annex I of Directive 2012/19/EU the categories of EEE covered
are as follows:
1. Large household appliances
2. Small household appliances
3. IT and telecommunications equipment
4. Consumer equipment and photovoltaic panels
5. Lighting equipment
6. Electrical and electronic tools (with the exception of large-scale
stationary industrial tools)
7. Toys, leisure and sports equipment
8. Medical devices (with the exception of all implanted and infected
products)
9. Monitoring and control instruments
10. Autonomic dispensers
Minimum recovery targets referred in Directive 2012/19/EU starting from
15 August 2018:
WEEE falling within category 1 or 10 of Annex I
- 85% shall be recovered, and 80% shall be prepared for re-use and
recycled;
WEEE falling within category 3 or 4 of Annex I
- 80% shall be recovered, and 70% shall be prepared for re-use and
recycled;
WEEE falling within category 2, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 of Annex I
-75% shall be recovered, and 55% shall be prepared for re-use and
recycled;
For gas and discharged lamps, 80% shall be recycled.
In 2021, the European Commission proposed the implementation of a
standardization - for iterations of USB-C - of phone charger products
after commissioning two impact assessment studies and a technology
analysis study. Regulations like this may reduce electronic waste by
small but significant amounts as well as, in this case, increase
device-interoperability, convergence and convenience for consumers
while decreasing resource-needs and
redundancy.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[additional citation(s) needed]
International agreements[edit]
Discarded electronic devices
A report by the United Nations Environment Management Group^[29] lists
key processes and agreements made by various organizations globally in
an effort to manage and control e-waste. Details about the policies
could be retrieved in the links below.
* International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
(MARPOL) (73/78/97)^[30]
* Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989)^[31]
* Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances (1989)^[32]
* International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention on Chemicals,
concerning safety in the use of chemicals at work (1990)^[33]
* Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD),
Council Decision Waste Agreement (1992)
* United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
(1994)
* International Conference on Chemicals Management (ICCM) (1995)
* Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for
Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade
(1998)
* Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001)^[34]
* World Health Organisation (WHO), World Health Assembly Resolutions
(2006 - 2016)
* Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally
Sound Recycling of Ships (2009)
* Minamata Convention on Mercury (2013)^[35]
* Paris Climate Agreement (2015) under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change^[36]
* Connect 2020 Agenda for Global Telecommunication/ICT Development
(2014)
Global trade issues[edit]
See also: Global Waste Trade and Electronic waste by country
Electronic waste is often exported to developing countries.
4.5-volt, D, C, AA, AAA, AAAA, A23, 9-volt, CR2032, and LR44 cells are
all recyclable in most countries.
The E-waste centre of Agbogbloshie, Ghana, where electronic waste is
burnt and disassembled with no safety or environmental considerations.
One theory is that increased regulation of electronic wastes and
concern over the environmental harm in nature economies creates an
economic disincentive to remove residues prior to export. Critics of
trade in used electronics maintain that it is still too easy for
brokers calling themselves recyclers to export unscreened electronic
waste to developing countries, such as China,^[37] India and parts of
Africa, thus avoiding the expense of removing items like bad cathode
ray tubes (the processing of which is expensive and difficult). The
developing countries have become toxic dump yards of e-waste.
Developing countries receiving foreign e-waste often go further to
repair and recycle forsaken equipment.^[38] Yet still 90% of e-waste
ended up in landfills in developing countries in 2003.^[38] Proponents
of international trade point to the success of fair trade programs in
other industries, where cooperation has led to creation of sustainable
jobs and can bring affordable technology in countries where repair and
reuse rates are higher.
Defenders of the trade^[who?] in used electronics say that extraction
of metals from virgin mining has been shifted to developing countries.
Recycling of copper, silver, gold, and other materials from discarded
electronic devices is considered better for the environment than
mining. They also state that repair and reuse of computers and
televisions has become a "lost art" in wealthier nations and that
refurbishing has traditionally been a path to development.
South Korea, Taiwan, and southern China all excelled in finding
"retained value" in used goods, and in some cases have set up
billion-dollar industries in refurbishing used ink cartridges,
single-use cameras, and working CRTs. Refurbishing has traditionally
been a threat to established manufacturing, and simple protectionism
explains some criticism of the trade. Works like "The Waste Makers" by
Vance Packard explain some of the criticism of exports of working
product, for example, the ban on import of tested working Pentium 4
laptops to China, or the bans on export of used surplus working
electronics by Japan.
Opponents of surplus electronics exports argue that lower environmental
and labour standards, cheap labour, and the relatively high value of
recovered raw materials lead to a transfer of pollution-generating
activities, such as smelting of copper wire. Electronic waste is often
sent to various African and Asian countries such as China, Malaysia,
India, and Kenya for processing, sometimes illegally. Many surplus
laptops are routed to developing nations as "dumping grounds for
e-waste".^[39]
Because the United States has not ratified the Basel Convention or its
Ban Amendment, and has few domestic federal laws forbidding the export
of toxic waste, the Basel Action Network estimates that about 80% of
the electronic waste directed to recycling in the U.S. does not get
recycled there at all, but is put on container ships and sent to
countries such as China.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43] This figure is disputed as
an exaggeration by the EPA, the Institute of Scrap Recycling
Industries, and the World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association.
Independent research by Arizona State University showed that 87-88% of
imported used computers did not have a higher value than the best value
of the constituent materials they contained, and that "the official
trade in end-of-life computers is thus driven by reuse as opposed to
recycling".^[44]
Trade[edit]
Sacks of mobile phones in Agbogbloshie, Ghana.
Proponents of the trade say growth of internet access is a stronger
correlation to trade than poverty. Haiti is poor and closer to the port
of New York than southeast Asia, but far more electronic waste is
exported from New York to Asia than to Haiti. Thousands of men, women,
and children are employed in reuse, refurbishing, repair, and
re-manufacturing, unsustainable industries in decline in developed
countries. Denying developing nations access to used electronics may
deny them sustainable employment, affordable products, and internet
access, or force them to deal with even less scrupulous suppliers. In a
series of seven articles for The Atlantic, Shanghai-based reporter Adam
Minter describes many of these computer repair and scrap separation
activities as objectively sustainable.^[45]
Opponents of the trade argue that developing countries utilize methods
that are more harmful and more wasteful. An expedient and prevalent
method is simply to toss equipment onto an open fire, in order to melt
plastics and to burn away non-valuable metals. This releases
carcinogens and neurotoxins into the air, contributing to an acrid,
lingering smog. These noxious fumes include dioxins and furans. Bonfire
refuse can be disposed of quickly into drainage ditches or waterways
feeding the ocean or local water supplies.^[43]
In June 2008, a container of electronic waste, destined from the Port
of Oakland in the U.S. to Sanshui District in mainland China, was
intercepted in Hong Kong by Greenpeace.^[46] Concern over exports of
electronic waste were raised in press reports in India,^[47]^[48]
Ghana,^[49]^[50]^[51] Cote d'Ivoire,^[52] and Nigeria.^[53]
The research that was undertaken by the Countering WEEE Illegal Trade
(CWIT) project, funded by European Commission, found that in Europe
only 35% (3.3 million tons) of all the e-waste discarded in 2012 ended
up in the officially reported amounts of collection and recycling
systems. The other 65% (6.15 million tons) was either:
* Exported (1.5 million tons),
* Recycled under non-compliant conditions in Europe (3.15 million
tons),
* Scavenged for valuable parts (750,000 tons), or
* Simply thrown in waste bins (750,000 tons).^[54]
Guiyu[edit]
Main articles: Electronic waste in China and Electronic waste in Guiyu
Guiyu in the Guangdong region of China is a massive electronic waste
processing community.^[40]^[55]^[56] It is often referred to as the
"e-waste capital of the world." Traditionally, Guiyu was an
agricultural community; however, in the mid-1990s it transformed into
an e-waste recycling center involving over 75% of the local households
and an additional 100,000 migrant workers.^[57] Thousands of individual
workshops employ laborers to snip cables, pry chips from circuit
boards, grind plastic computer cases into particles, and dip circuit
boards in acid baths to dissolve the precious metals. Others work to
strip insulation from all wiring in an attempt to salvage tiny amounts
of copper wire.^[58] Uncontrolled burning, disassembly, and disposal
has led to a number of environmental problems such as groundwater
contamination, atmospheric pollution, and water pollution either by
immediate discharge or from surface runoff (especially near coastal
areas), as well as health problems including occupational safety and
health effects among those directly and indirectly involved, due to the
methods of processing the waste.
Six of the many villages in Guiyu specialize in circuit-board
disassembly, seven in plastics and metals reprocessing, and two in wire
and cable disassembly. Greenpeace, an environmental group, sampled
dust, soil, river sediment, and groundwater in Guiyu. They found very
high levels of toxic heavy metals and organic contaminants in both
places.^[59] Lai Yun, a campaigner for the group found "over 10
poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium."
Guiyu is only one example of digital dumps but similar places can be
found across the world in Nigeria, Ghana, and India.^[60]
Other informal e-waste recycling sites[edit]
A pile of discarded TVs and computer monitors.
Guiyu is likely one of the oldest and largest informal e-waste
recycling sites in the world; however, there are many sites worldwide,
including India, Ghana (Agbogbloshie), Nigeria, and the Philippines.
There are a handful of studies that describe exposure levels in e-waste
workers, the community, and the environment. For example, locals and
migrant workers in Delhi, a northern union territory of India, scavenge
discarded computer equipment and extract base metals using toxic,
unsafe methods.^[61] Bangalore, located in southern India, is often
referred as the "Silicon Valley of India" and has a growing informal
e-waste recycling sector.^[62]^[63] A study found that e-waste workers
in the slum community had higher levels of V, Cr, Mn, Mo, Sn, Tl, and
Pb than workers at an e-waste recycling facility.^[62]
Cryptocurrency e-waste[edit]
Bitcoin mining has also contributed to higher amounts in electronic
waste, as it has become an increasingly popular form of currency in
global trade. According to Alex de Vries and Christian Stoll, the
average bitcoin transaction yields 272 grams of electronic waste and
has generated approximately 112.5 million grams of waste in 2020
alone.^[64] Other estimates indicate that the Bitcoin network discards
as much "small IT and telecommunication equipment waste produced by a
country like the Netherlands," totalling to 30.7 metric kilotons every
year.^[64] Furthermore, the rate at which Bitcoin disposes of its waste
exceeds that of major financial organizations such as VISA, which
produces 40 grams of waste for every 100,000 transactions.^[65]
A major point of concern is the rapid turnover of technology in the
Bitcoin industry which results in such high levels of e-waste. This can
be attributed to the proof-of-work principle Bitcoin employs where
miners receive currency as a reward for being the first to decode the
hashes that encode its blockchain.^[66] As such, miners are encouraged
to compete with one another to decode the hash first.^[66] However,
computing these hashes requires massive computing power which, in
effect, drives miners to obtain rigs with the highest processing power
possible. In an attempt to achieve this, miners increase the processing
power in their rigs by purchasing more advanced computer chips.^[66]
According to Koomey's Law, efficiency in computer chips doubles every
1.5 years,^[67] meaning that miners are incentivized to purchase new
chips to keep up with competing miners even though the older chips are
still functional. In some cases, miners even discard their chips
earlier than this timeframe for the sake of profitability.^[64]
However, this leads to a significant build up in waste, as outdated
application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC computer chips) cannot
be reused or repurposed.^[66] Most computer chips miners currently use
are ASIC chips, whose sole function is to mine bitcoin, rendering them
useless for other cryptocurrencies or operation in any other piece of
technology.^[66] Therefore, outdated ASIC chips can only be disposed of
since they are unable to be repurposed.
Bitcoin's e-waste problem is further exacerbated by the fact that many
countries and corporations lack recycling programs for ASIC chips.^[64]
Developing a recycling infrastructure for bitcoin mining may prove to
be beneficial, though, as the aluminum heat sinks and metal casings in
ASIC chips can be recycled into new technology.^[64] Much of this
responsibility falls onto Bitmain, the leading manufacturer of Bitcoin,
which currently lacks the infrastructure to recycle waste from bitcoin
mining.^[64] Without such programs, much of bitcoin waste ends up in
landfill along with 83.6% of the global total of e-waste.^[64]
Many argue for relinquishing the proof-of-work model altogether in
favour of the proof-of-stake one. This model selects one miner to
validate the transactions in the blockchain, rather than have all
miners competing for it.^[68] With no competition, the processing speed
of miners' rigs would not matter.^[64] Any device could be used for
validating the blockchain, so there would be no incentive to use
single-use ASIC chips or continually purchase new and dispose of old
ones.^[64]^[68]
Environmental impact[edit]
Old keyboards and a mouse.
A recent study about the rising electronic pollution in the USA
revealed that the average computer screen has five to eight pounds or
more of lead representing 40 percent of all the lead in US landfills.
All these toxins are persistent, bioaccumulative toxins (PBTs) that
create environmental and health risks when computers are incinerated,
put in landfills or melted down. The emission of fumes, gases, and
particulate matter into the air, the discharge of liquid waste into
water and drainage systems, and the disposal of hazardous wastes
contribute to environmental degradation.^[69] The processes of
dismantling and disposing of electronic waste in developing countries
led to a number of environmental impacts as illustrated in the graphic.
Liquid and atmospheric releases end up in bodies of water, groundwater,
soil, and air and therefore in land and sea animals - both domesticated
and wild, in crops eaten by both animals and human, and in drinking
water.^[70]
One study of environmental effects in Guiyu, China found the
following:^[9]
* Airborne dioxins - one type found at 100 times levels previously
measured
* Levels of carcinogens in duck ponds and rice paddies exceeded
international standards for agricultural areas and cadmium, copper,
nickel, and lead levels in rice paddies were above international
standards
* Heavy metals found in road dust - lead over 300 times that of a
control village's road dust and copper over 100 times
The Agbogbloshie area of Ghana, where about 40,000 people live,
provides an example of how e-waste contamination can pervade the daily
lives of nearly all residents. Into this area--one of the largest
informal e-waste dumping and processing sites in Africa--about 215,000
tons of secondhand consumer electronics, primarily from Western Europe,
are imported annually. Because this region has considerable overlap
among industrial, commercial, and residential zones, Pure Earth
(formerly Blacksmith Institute) has ranked Agbogbloshie as one of the
world's 10 worst toxic threats (Blacksmith Institute 2013).^[71]
A separate study at the Agbogbloshie e-waste dump, Ghana found a
presence of lead levels as high as 18,125 ppm in the soil.^[72] US EPA
standard for lead in soil in play areas is 400 ppm and 1200 ppm for
non-play areas.^[73] Scrap workers at the Agbogbloshie e-waste dump
regularly burn electronic components and auto harness wires for copper
recovery,^[74] releasing toxic chemicals like lead, dioxins and
furans^[75] into the environment.
Researchers such as Brett Robinson, a professor of soil and physical
sciences at Lincoln University in New Zealand, warn that wind patterns
in Southeast China disperse toxic particles released by open-air
burning across the Pearl River Delta Region, home to 45 million people.
In this way, toxic chemicals from e-waste enter the "soil-crop-food
pathway," one of the most significant routes for heavy metals' exposure
to humans. These chemicals are not biodegradable-- they persist in the
environment for long periods of time, increasing exposure risk.^[76]
In the agricultural district of Chachoengsao, in the east of Bangkok,
local villagers had lost their main water source as a result of e-waste
dumping. The cassava fields were transformed in late 2017, when a
nearby Chinese-run factory started bringing in foreign e-waste items
such as crushed computers, circuit boards and cables for recycling to
mine the electronics for valuable metal components like copper, silver
and gold. But the items also contain lead, cadmium and mercury, which
are highly toxic if mishandled during processing. Apart from feeling
faint from noxious fumes emitted during processing, a local claimed the
factory has also contaminated her water. "When it was raining, the
water went through the pile of waste and passed our house and went into
the soil and water system. Water tests conducted in the province by
environmental group Earth and the local government both found toxic
levels of iron, manganese, lead, nickel and in some cases arsenic and
cadmium. "The communities observed when they used water from the
shallow well, there was some development of skin disease or there are
foul smells," founder of Earth, Penchom Saetang said. "This is proof,
that it is true, as the communities suspected, there are problems
happening to their water sources."^[77]
CAPTION: The environmental impact of the processing of different
electronic waste components^[78]
E-Waste Component Process Used Potential Environmental Hazard
Cathode ray tubes (used in TVs, computer monitors, ATM, video cameras,
and more) Breaking and removal of yoke, then dumping Lead, barium and
other heavy metals leaching into the ground water and release of toxic
phosphor
Printed circuit board (image behind table - a thin plate on which chips
and other electronic components are placed) De-soldering and removal of
computer chips; open burning and acid baths to remove metals after
chips are removed. Air emissions and discharge into rivers of glass
dust, tin, lead, brominated dioxin, beryllium cadmium, and mercury
Chips and other gold plated components Chemical stripping using nitric
and hydrochloric acid and burning of chips PAHs, heavy metals,
brominated flame retardants discharged directly into rivers acidifying
fish and flora. Tin and lead contamination of surface and groundwater.
Air emissions of brominated dioxins, heavy metals, and PAHs
Plastics from printers, keyboards, monitors, etc. Shredding and low
temp melting to be reused Emissions of brominated dioxins, heavy
metals, and hydrocarbons
Computer wires Open burning and stripping to remove copper PAHs
released into air, water, and soil.
Depending on the age and type of the discarded item, the chemical
composition of E-waste may vary. Most E-waste are composed of a mixture
of metals like Cu, Al and Fe. They might be attached to, covered with
or even mixed with various types of plastics and ceramics. E-waste has
a horrible effect on the environment and it is important to dispose it
with an R2 certifies recycling facility.^[79]
Research[edit]
In May 2020, a scientific study was conducted in China that
investigated the occurrence and distribution of traditional and novel
classes of contaminants, including chlorinated, brominated, and mixed
halogenated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs, PBDD/Fs,
PXDD/Fs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) and polyhalogenated carbazoles (PHCZs) in soil from an
e-waste disposal site in Hangzhou (which has been in operation since
2009 and has a treatment capacity of 19.6 Wt/a). While the study area
has only one formal emission source, the broader industrial zone has a
number of metal recovery and reprocessing plants as well as heavy
traffic on adjacent motorways where normal and heavy-duty devices are
used. The maximum concentrations of the target halogenated organic
compounds HOCs were 0.1-1.5 km away from the main source and overall
detected levels of HOCs were generally lower than those reported
globally. The study proved what researchers have warned, i. e. on
highways with heavy traffic, especially those serving diesel powered
vehicles, exhaust emissions are larger sources of dioxins than
stationary sources. When assessing the environmental and health impacts
of chemical compounds, especially PBDD/Fs and PXDD/Fs, the
compositional complexity of soil and long period weather conditions
like rain and downwind have to be taken into account. Further
investigations are necessary to build up a common understanding and
methods for assessing e-waste impacts.^[80]
Information security[edit]
Discarded data processing equipment may still contain readable data
that may be considered sensitive to the previous users of the device. A
recycling plan for such equipment can support information security by
ensuring proper steps are followed to erase the sensitive information.
This may include such steps as re-formatting of storage media and
overwriting with random data to make data unrecoverable, or even
physical destruction of media by shredding and incineration to ensure
all data is obliterated. For example, on many operating systems
deleting a file may still leave the physical data file intact on the
media, allowing data retrieval by routine methods.
Recycling[edit]
See also: Appliance recycling, Computer recycling, and Mobile phone
recycling
Computer monitors are typically packed into low stacks on wooden
pallets for recycling and then shrink-wrapped.
Recycling is an essential element of e-waste management. Properly
carried out, it should greatly reduce the leakage of toxic materials
into the environment and militate against the exhaustion of natural
resources. However, it does need to be encouraged by local authorities
and through community education. Less than 20% of e-waste is formally
recycled, with 80% either ending up in landfill or being informally
recycled - much of it by hand in developing countries, exposing workers
to hazardous and carcinogenic substances such as mercury, lead and
cadmium.^[81]
One of the major challenges is recycling the printed circuit boards
from electronic waste. The circuit boards contain such precious metals
as gold, silver, platinum, etc. and such base metals as copper, iron,
aluminum, etc. One way e-waste is processed is by melting circuit
boards, burning cable sheathing to recover copper wire and open- pit
acid leaching for separating metals of value.^[9] Conventional method
employed is mechanical shredding and separation but the recycling
efficiency is low. Alternative methods such as cryogenic decomposition
have been studied for printed circuit board recycling,^[82] and some
other methods are still under investigation. Properly disposing of or
reusing electronics can help prevent health problems, reduce
greenhouse-gas emissions, and create jobs.^[83]
Consumer awareness efforts[edit]
A campaign to promote e-waste recycling in Ghana.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency encourages electronic
recyclers to become certified by demonstrating to an accredited,
independent third party auditor that they meet specific standards to
safely recycle and manage electronics. This should work so as to ensure
the highest environmental standards are being maintained. Two
certifications for electronic recyclers currently exist and are
endorsed by the EPA. Customers are encouraged to choose certified
electronics recyclers. Responsible electronics recycling reduces
environmental and human health impacts, increases the use of reusable
and refurbished equipment and reduces energy use while conserving
limited resources. The two EPA-endorsed certification programs are
Responsible Recyclers Practices (R2) and E-Stewards. Certified
companies ensure they are meeting strict environmental standards which
maximize reuse and recycling, minimize exposure to human health or the
environment, ensure safe management of materials and require
destruction of all data used on electronics.^[84] Certified electronics
recyclers have demonstrated through audits and other means that they
continually meet specific high environmental standards and safely
manage used electronics. Once certified, the recycler is held to the
particular standard by continual oversight by the independent
accredited certifying body. A certification board accredits and
oversees certifying bodies to ensure that they meet specific
responsibilities and are competent to audit and provide
certification.^[85]
Some U.S. retailers offer opportunities for consumer recycling of
discarded electronic devices.^[86]^[87] In the US, the Consumer
Electronics Association (CEA) urges consumers to dispose properly of
end-of-life electronics through its recycling locator. This list only
includes manufacturer and retailer programs that use the strictest
standards and third-party certified recycling locations, to provide
consumers assurance that their products will be recycled safely and
responsibly. CEA research has found that 58 percent of consumers know
where to take their end-of-life electronics, and the electronics
industry would very much like to see that level of awareness increase.
Consumer electronics manufacturers and retailers sponsor or operate
more than 5,000 recycling locations nationwide and have vowed to
recycle one billion pounds annually by 2016,^[88] a sharp increase from
300 million pounds industry recycled in 2010.
The Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) Electronic Challenge was
created by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in
2012.^[89] Participants of the Challenge are manufacturers of
electronics and electronic retailers. These companies collect
end-of-life (EOL) electronics at various locations and send them to a
certified, third-party recycler. Program participants are then able
publicly promote and report 100% responsible recycling for their
companies.^[90] The Electronics TakeBack Coalition (ETBC)^[91] is a
campaign aimed at protecting human health and limiting environmental
effects where electronics are being produced, used, and discarded. The
ETBC aims to place responsibility for disposal of technology products
on electronic manufacturers and brand owners, primarily through
community promotions and legal enforcement initiatives. It provides
recommendations for consumer recycling and a list of recyclers judged
environmentally responsible.^[92] While there have been major benefits
from the rise in recycling and waste collection created by producers
and consumers, such as valuable materials being recovered and kept away
from landfill and incineration, there are still many problems present
with the EPR system including "how to ensure proper enforcement of
recycling standards, what to do about waste with positive net value,
and the role of competition," (Kunz et al.). Many stakeholders agreed
there needs to be a higher standard of accountability and efficiency to
improve the systems of recycling everywhere, as well as the growing
amount of waste being an opportunity more so than downfall since it
gives us more chances to create an efficient system. To make recycling
competition more cost-effective, the producers agreed that there needs
to be a higher drive for competition because it allows them to have a
wider range of producer responsibility organizations to choose from for
e-waste recycling.^[93]
The Certified Electronics Recycler program^[94] for electronic
recyclers is a comprehensive, integrated management system standard
that incorporates key operational and continual improvement elements
for quality, environmental and health and safety performance. The
grassroots Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition promotes human health and
addresses environmental justice problems resulting from toxins in
technologies. The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association
(wr3a.org) is an organization dedicated to improving the quality of
exported electronics, encouraging better recycling standards in
importing countries, and improving practices through "Fair Trade"
principles. Take Back My TV^[95] is a project of The Electronics
TakeBack Coalition and grades television manufacturers to find out
which are responsible, in the coalition's view, and which are not.
There have also been efforts to raise awareness of the potentially
hazardous conditions of the dismantling of e-waste in American prisons.
The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition, prisoner-rights activists, and
environmental groups released a Toxic Sweatshops report that details
how prison labor is being used to handle e-waste, resulting in health
consequences among the workers.^[96] These groups allege that, since
prisons do not have adequate safety standards, inmates are dismantling
the products under unhealthy and unsafe conditions.^[97]
Processing techniques[edit]
Recycling the lead from batteries.
In many developed countries, electronic waste processing usually first
involves dismantling the equipment into various parts (metal frames,
power supplies, circuit boards, plastics), often by hand, but
increasingly by automated shredding equipment. A typical example is the
NADIN electronic waste processing plant in Novi Iskar, Bulgaria--the
largest facility of its kind in Eastern Europe.^[98]^[99] The
advantages of this process are the human worker's ability to recognize
and save working and repairable parts, including chips, transistors,
RAM, etc. The disadvantage is that the labor is cheapest in countries
with the lowest health and safety standards.
In an alternative bulk system,^[100] a hopper conveys material for
shredding into an unsophisticated mechanical separator, with screening
and granulating machines to separate constituent metal and plastic
fractions, which are sold to smelters or plastics recyclers. Such
recycling machinery is enclosed and employs a dust collection system.
Some of the emissions are caught by scrubbers and screens. Magnets,
eddy currents, and Trommel screens are employed to separate glass,
plastic, and ferrous and nonferrous metals, which can then be further
separated at a smelter.
Leaded glass from CRTs is reused in car batteries, ammunition, and lead
wheel weights, or sold to foundries as a fluxing agent in processing
raw lead ore. Copper, gold, palladium, silver and tin are valuable
metals sold to smelters for recycling. Hazardous smoke and gases are
captured, contained and treated to mitigate environmental threat. These
methods allow for safe reclamation of all valuable computer
construction materials. Hewlett-Packard product recycling solutions
manager Renee St. Denis describes its process as: "We move them through
giant shredders about 30 feet tall and it shreds everything into pieces
about the size of a quarter. Once your disk drive is shredded into
pieces about this big, it's hard to get the data off".^[101] An ideal
electronic waste recycling plant combines dismantling for component
recovery with increased cost-effective processing of bulk electronic
waste. Reuse is an alternative option to recycling because it extends
the lifespan of a device. Devices still need eventual recycling, but by
allowing others to purchase used electronics, recycling can be
postponed and value gained from device use.
In early November 2021, the U.S. of Georgia announced a joint effort
with Igneo Technologies to build an $85 million large electronics
recycling plant in the Port of Savannah. The project will focus on
lower-value, plastics-heavy devices in the waste stream using multiple
shredders and furnaces using pyrolysis technology.^[102]
Benefits of recycling[edit]
Recycling raw materials from end-of-life electronics is the most
effective solution to the growing e-waste problem. Most electronic
devices contain a variety of materials, including metals that can be
recovered for future uses. By dismantling and providing reuse
possibilities, intact natural resources are conserved and air and water
pollution caused by hazardous disposal is avoided. Additionally,
recycling reduces the amount of greenhouse gas emissions caused by the
manufacturing of new products.^[103] Another benefit of recycling
e-waste is that many of the materials can be recycled and re-used
again. Materials that can be recycled include "ferrous (iron-based) and
non-ferrous metals, glass, and various types of plastic." "Non-ferrous
metals, mainly aluminum and copper can all be re-smelted and
re-manufactured. Ferrous metals such as steel and iron also can be
re-used."^[104] Due to the recent surge in popularity in 3D printing,
certain 3D printers have been designed (FDM variety) to produce waste
that can be easily recycled which decreases the amount of harmful
pollutants in the atmosphere.^[105] The excess plastic from these
printers that comes out as a byproduct can also be reused to create new
3D printed creations.^[106]
Benefits of recycling are extended when responsible recycling methods
are used. In the U.S., responsible recycling aims to minimize the
dangers to human health and the environment that disposed and
dismantled electronics can create. Responsible recycling ensures best
management practices of the electronics being recycled, worker health
and safety, and consideration for the environment locally and
abroad.^[107] In Europe, metals that are recycled are returned to
companies of origin at a reduced cost.^[108] Through a committed
recycling system, manufacturers in Japan have been pushed to make their
products more sustainable. Since many companies were responsible for
the recycling of their own products, this imposed responsibility on
manufacturers requiring many to redesign their infrastructure. As a
result, manufacturers in Japan have the added option to sell the
recycled metals.^[109]
Improper management of e-waste is resulting in a significant loss of
scarce and valuable raw materials, such as gold, platinum, cobalt and
rare earth elements. As much as 7% of the world's gold may currently be
contained in e-waste, with 100 times more gold in a tonne of e-waste
than in a tonne of gold ore.^[81]
Repair as waste reduction method[edit]
There are several ways to curb the environmental hazards arising from
the recycling of electronic waste. One of the factors which exacerbate
the e-waste problem is the diminishing lifetime of many electrical and
electronic goods. There are two drivers (in particular) for this trend.
On the one hand, consumer demand for low cost products militates
against product quality and results in short product lifetimes.^[110]
On the other, manufacturers in some sectors encourage a regular upgrade
cycle, and may even enforce it though restricted availability of spare
parts, service manuals and software updates, or through planned
obsolescence.
Consumer dissatisfaction with this state of affairs has led to a
growing repair movement. Often, this is at a community level such as
through repair cafes or the "restart parties" promoted by the Restart
Project.^[111]
The Right to Repair is spearheaded in the US by farmers dissatisfied
with non-availability of service information, specialised tools and
spare parts for their high-tech farm machinery. But the movement
extends far beyond farm machinery with, for example, the restricted
repair options offered by Apple coming in for criticism. Manufacturers
often counter with safety concerns resulting from unauthorised repairs
and modifications.^[112]
An easy method of reducing electronic waste footprint is to sell or
donate electronic gadgets, rather than dispose of them. Improperly
disposed e-waste is becoming more and more hazardous, especially as the
sheer volume of e-waste increases. For this reason, large brands like
Apple, Samsung, and others have started giving options to customers to
recycle old electronics. Recycling allows the expensive electronic
parts inside to be reused. This may save significant energy and reduce
the need for mining of additional raw resources, or manufacture of new
components. Electronic recycling programs may be found locally in many
areas with a simple online search; for example, by searching "recycle
electronics" along with the city or area name.
Cloud services have proven to be useful in storing data, which is then
accessible from anywhere in the world without the need to carry storage
devices. Cloud storage also allows for large storage, at low cost. This
offers convenience, while reducing the need for manufacture of new
storage devices, thus curbing the amount of e-waste generated.^[113]
Electronic waste classification[edit]
The market has a lot of different types of electrical products. To
categorize these products, it is necessary to group them into sensible
and practical categories. Classification of the products may even help
to determine the process to be used for disposal of the product. Making
the classifications, in general, is helping to describe e-waste.
Classifications has not defined special details, for example when they
do not pose a threat to the environment. On the other hand,
classifications should not be too aggregated because of countries
differences in interpretation.^[114]^[114] The UNU-KEYs system closely
follows the harmonized statistical (HS) coding. It is an international
nomenclature which is an integrated system to allow classify common
basis for customs purposes.^[114]
Electronic waste substances[edit]
Several sizes of button and coin cell with 2 9v batteries as a size
comparison. They are all recycled in many countries since they often
contain lead, mercury and cadmium.
Some computer components can be reused in assembling new computer
products, while others are reduced to metals that can be reused in
applications as varied as construction, flatware, and jewellery.
Substances found in large quantities include epoxy resins, fiberglass,
PCBs, PVC (polyvinyl chlorides), thermosetting plastics, lead, tin,
copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron, and aluminium. Elements found
in small amounts include cadmium, mercury, and thallium.^[115] Elements
found in trace amounts include americium, antimony, arsenic, barium,
bismuth, boron, cobalt, europium, gallium, germanium, gold, indium,
lithium, manganese, nickel, niobium, palladium, platinum, rhodium,
ruthenium, selenium,^[116] silver, tantalum, terbium, thorium,
titanium, vanadium, and yttrium. Almost all electronics contain lead
and tin (as solder) and copper (as wire and printed circuit board
tracks), though the use of lead-free solder is now spreading rapidly.
The following are ordinary applications:
Hazardous[edit]
Recyclers in the street in Sao Paulo, Brazil with old computers
CAPTION: Hazardous waste material from e-waste
E-Waste Component Electric Appliances in which they are found Adverse
Health Effects
Americium The radioactive source in smoke alarms. It is known to be
carcinogenic.^[117]
Lead Solder, CRT monitor glass, lead-acid batteries, some formulations
of PVC. A typical 15-inch cathode ray tube may contain 1.5 pounds of
lead,^[4] but other CRTs have been estimated as having up to 8 pounds
of lead. Adverse effects of lead exposure include impaired cognitive
function, behavioral disturbances, attention deficits, hyperactivity,
conduct problems, and lower IQ.^[118] These effects are most damaging
to children whose developing nervous systems are very susceptible to
damage caused by lead, cadmium, and mercury.^[119]
Mercury Found in fluorescent tubes (numerous applications), tilt
switches (mechanical doorbells, thermostats),^[120] and ccfl backlights
in flat screen monitors. Health effects include sensory impairment,
dermatitis, memory loss, and muscle weakness. Exposure in-utero causes
fetal deficits in motor function, attention, and verbal domains.^[118]
Environmental effects in animals include death, reduced fertility, and
slower growth and development.
Cadmium Found in light-sensitive resistors, corrosion-resistant alloys
for marine and aviation environments, and nickel-cadmium batteries. The
most common form of cadmium is found in Nickel-cadmium rechargeable
batteries. These batteries tend to contain between 6 and 18% cadmium.
The sale of Nickel-Cadmium batteries has been banned in the EU except
for medical use. When not properly recycled it can leach into the soil,
harming microorganisms and disrupting the soil ecosystem. Exposure is
caused by proximity to hazardous waste sites and factories and workers
in the metal refining industry. The inhalation of cadmium can cause
severe damage to the lungs and is also known to cause kidney
damage.^[121] Cadmium is also associated with deficits in cognition,
learning, behavior, and neuromotor skills in children.^[118]
Hexavalent chromium Used in metal coatings to protect from corrosion. A
known carcinogen after occupational inhalation exposure.^[118]
There is also evidence of cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of some
chemicals, which have been shown to inhibit cell proliferation, cause
cell membrane lesion, cause DNA single-strand breaks, and elevate
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) levels.^[122]
Sulfur Found in lead-acid batteries. Health effects include liver
damage, kidney damage, heart damage, eye and throat irritation. When
released into the environment, it can create sulfuric acid through
sulfur dioxide.
Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs) Used as flame retardants in plastics
in most electronics. Includes PBBs, PBDE, DecaBDE, OctaBDE, PentaBDE.
Health effects include impaired development of the nervous system,
thyroid problems, liver problems.^[123] Environmental effects: similar
effects as in animals as humans. PBBs were banned from 1973 to 1977 on.
PCBs were banned during the 1980s.
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) Used as an antistatic additive in
industrial applications and found in electronics, also found in
non-stick cookware (PTFE). PFOAs are formed synthetically through
environmental degradation. Studies in mice have found the following
health effects: Hepatotoxicity, developmental toxicity, immunotoxicity,
hormonal effects and carcinogenic effects. Studies have found increased
maternal PFOA levels to be associated with an increased risk of
spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) and stillbirth. Increased maternal
levels of PFOA are also associated with decreases in mean gestational
age (preterm birth), mean birth weight (low birth weight), mean birth
length (small for gestational age), and mean APGAR score.^[124]
Beryllium oxide Filler in some thermal interface materials such as
thermal grease used on heatsinks for CPUs and power transistors,^[125]
magnetrons, X-ray-transparent ceramic windows, heat transfer fins in
vacuum tubes, and gas lasers. Occupational exposures associated with
lung cancer, other common adverse health effects are beryllium
sensitization, chronic beryllium disease, and acute beryllium
disease.^[126]
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Commonly found in electronics and is typically
used as insulation for electrical cables.^[127] In the manufacturing
phase, toxic and hazardous raw material, including dioxins are
released. PVC such as chlorine tend to bioaccumulate.^[128] Over time,
the compounds that contain chlorine can become pollutants in the air,
water, and soil. This poses a problem as human and animals can ingest
them. Additionally, exposure to toxins can result in reproductive and
developmental health effects.^[129]
Generally non-hazardous[edit]
An iMac G4 that has been repurposed into a lamp (photographed next to a
Mac Classic and a Motorola MicroTAC).
CAPTION: Recycling non-hazardous waste^[130]
E-waste component Process used
Aluminium Nearly all electronic goods using more than a few watts of
power (heatsinks), ICs, electrolytic capacitors.
Copper Copper wire, printed circuit board tracks, ICs, component leads.
Germanium^[116] 1950s-1960s transistorized electronics (bipolar
junction transistors).
Gold Connector plating, primarily in computer equipment.
Lithium Lithium-ion batteries.
Nickel Nickel-cadmium batteries.
Silicon Glass, transistors, ICs, printed circuit boards.
Tin Solder, coatings on component leads.
Zinc Plating for steel parts.
Human health and safety[edit]
Residents living near recycling sites[edit]
Residents living around the e-waste recycling sites, even if they do
not involve in e-waste recycling activities, can also face the
environmental exposure due to the food, water, and environmental
contamination caused by e-waste, because they can easily contact to
e-waste contaminated air, water, soil, dust, and food sources. In
general, there are three main exposure pathways: inhalation, ingestion,
and dermal contact.^[131]
Studies show that people living around e-waste recycling sites have a
higher daily intake of heavy metals and a more serious body burden.
Potential health risks include mental health, impaired cognitive
function, and general physical health damage.^[132](See also Electronic
waste#Hazardous) DNA damage was also found more prevalent in all the
e-waste exposed populations (i.e. adults, children, and neonates) than
the populations in the control area.^[132] DNA breaks can increase the
likelihood of wrong replication and thus mutation, as well as lead to
cancer if the damage is to a tumor suppressor gene .^[122]
Prenatal exposure and neonates' health[edit]
Prenatal exposure to e-waste has found to have adverse effects on human
body burden of pollutants of the neonates. In Guiyu, one of the most
famous e-waste recycling sites in China, it was found that increased
cord blood lead concentration of neonates was associated with parents'
participation in e-waste recycling processes, as well as how long the
mothers spent living in Guiyu and in e-waste recycling factories or
workshops during pregnancy.^[131] Besides, a higher placental
metallothionein (a small protein marking the exposure of toxic metals)
was found among neonates from Guiyu as a result of Cd exposure, while
the higher Cd level in Guiyu's neonates was related to the involvement
in e-waste recycling of their parents.^[133] High PFOA exposure of
mothers in Guiyu is related to adverse effect on growth of their
new-born and the prepotency in this area.^[134]
Prenatal exposure to informal e-waste recycling can also lead to
several adverse birth outcomes (still birth, low birth weight, low
Apgar scores, etc.) and longterm effects such as behavioral and
learning problems of the neonates in their future life.^[135]
Children[edit]
Children are especially sensitive to e-waste exposure because of
several reasons, such as their smaller size, higher metabolism rate,
larger surface area in relation to their weight, and multiple exposure
pathways (for example, dermal, hand-to-mouth, and take-home
exposure).^[136]^[132] They were measured to have an 8-time potential
health risk compared to the adult e-waste recycling workers.^[132]
Studies have found significant higher blood lead levels (BLL) and blood
cadmium levels (BCL) of children living in e-waste recycling area
compared to those living in control area.^[137]^[138] For example, one
study found that the average BLL in Guiyu was nearly 1.5 times compared
to that in the control site (15.3 ug/dL compared to 9.9 ug/dL),^[137]
while the CDC of the United States has set a reference level for blood
lead at 5 ug/dL.^[139] The highest concentrations of lead were found in
the children of parents whose workshop dealt with circuit boards and
the lowest was among those who recycled plastic.^[137]
Exposure to e-waste can cause serious health problems to children.
Children's exposure to developmental neurotoxins containing in e-waste
such as lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium and PBDEs can lead to a higher
risk of lower IQ, impaired cognitive function, and other adverse
effects.^[140] In certain age groups, a decreased lung function of
children in e-waste recycling sites has been found.^[131] Some studies
also found associations between children's e-waste exposure and
impaired coagulation,^[141] hearing loss,^[142] and decreased vaccine
antibody tilters^[143] in e-waste recycling area.
E-waste recycling workers[edit]
The complex composition and improper handling of e-waste adversely
affect human health. A growing body of epidemiological and clinical
evidence has led to increased concern about the potential threat of
e-waste to human health, especially in developing countries such as
India and China. For instance, in terms of health hazards, open burning
of printed wiring boards increases the concentration of dioxins in the
surrounding areas. These toxins cause an increased risk of cancer if
inhaled by workers and local residents. Toxic metals and poison can
also enter the bloodstream during the manual extraction and collection
of tiny quantities of precious metals, and workers are continuously
exposed to poisonous chemicals and fumes of highly concentrated acids.
Recovering resalable copper by burning insulated wires causes
neurological disorders, and acute exposure to cadmium, found in
semiconductors and chip resistors, can damage the kidneys and liver and
cause bone loss. Long-term exposure to lead on printed circuit boards
and computer and television screens can damage the central and
peripheral nervous system and kidneys, and children are more
susceptible to these harmful effects.^[144]
The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) has summarized
several potential safety hazards of recycling workers in general, such
as crushing hazards, hazardous energy released, and toxic metals.^[145]
CAPTION: Hazards applicable to recycling in general^[145]^[146]
Hazards Details
Slips, trips, and falls They can happen during collecting and
transporting e-wastes.
Crushing hazards Workers can be stuck or crushed by the machine or the
e-waste. There can be traffic accidents when transporting e-waste.
Using machines that have moving parts, such as conveyors and rolling
machines can also cause crush accidents, leading to amputations,
crushed fingers or hands.
Hazardous energy released Unexpected machine startup can cause death or
injury to workers. This can happen during the installation,
maintenance, or repair of machines, equipment, processes, or systems.
Cuts and lacerations Hands or body injuries and eye injuries can occur
when dismantling e-wastes that have sharp edges.
Noise Working overtime near loud noises from drilling, hammering, and
other tools that can make a great noise lead to hearing loss.
Toxic chemicals (dusts) Burning e-waste to extract metals emits toxic
chemicals (e.g. PAHs, lead) from e-waste to the air, which can be
inhaled or ingested by workers at recycling sites. This can lead to
illness from toxic chemicals.
OSHA has also specified some chemical components of electronics that
can potentially do harm to e-recycling workers' health, such as lead,
mercury, PCBs, asbestos, refractory ceramic fibers (RCFs), and
radioactive substances.^[145] Besides, in the United States, most of
these chemical hazards have specific Occupational exposure limits
(OELs) set by OSHA, National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH), and American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH).
CAPTION: Occupational exposure limits (OELs) of some hazardous
chemicals
Hazardous chemicals OELs (mg/m^3) Type of OELs
Lead (Pb) 0.05^[147] NIOSH recommended exposure limits (REL), time
weighted average (TWA)
Mercury (Hg) 0.05^[148] NIOSH REL, TWA
Cadmium (Cd) 0.005^[149] OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL), TWA
Hexavalent chromium 0.005^[150] OSHA PEL, TWA
Sulfer dioxide 5^[151] NIOSH REL, TWA
For the details of health consequences of these chemical hazards, see
also Electronic waste#Electronic waste substances.
Informal and formal industries[edit]
Informal e-recycling industry refers to small e-waste recycling
workshops with few (if any) automatic procedures and personal
protective equipment (PPE). On the other hand, formal e-recycling
industry refers to regular e-recycling facilities sorting materials
from e-waste with automatic machinery and manual labor, where pollution
control and PPE are common.^[131]^[152] Sometimes formal e-recycling
facilities dismantle the e-waste to sort materials, then distribute it
to other downstream recycling department to further recover materials
such as plastic and metals.^[152]
The health impact of e-waste recycling workers working in informal
industry and formal industry are expect to be different in the
extent.^[152] Studies in three recycling sites in China suggest that
the health risks of workers from formal e-recycling facilities in
Jiangsu and Shanghai were lower compared to those worked in informal
e-recycling sites in Guiyu.^[132] The primitive methods used by
unregulated backyard operators (e.g., the informal sector) to reclaim,
reprocess, and recycle e-waste materials expose the workers to a number
of toxic substances. Processes such as dismantling components, wet
chemical processing, and incineration are used and result in direct
exposure and inhalation of harmful chemicals. Safety equipment such as
gloves, face masks, and ventilation fans are virtually unknown, and
workers often have little idea of what they are handling.^[153] In
another study of e-waste recycling in India, hair samples were
collected from workers at an e-waste recycling facility and an e-waste
recycling slum community (informal industry) in Bangalore.^[154] Levels
of V, Cr, Mn, Mo, Sn, Tl, and Pb were significantly higher in the
workers at the e-waste recycling facility compared to the e-waste
workers in the slum community. However, Co, Ag, Cd, and Hg levels were
significantly higher in the slum community workers compared to the
facility workers.
Even in formal e-recycling industry, workers can be exposed to
excessive pollutants. Studies in the formal e-recycling facilities in
France and Sweden found workers' overexposure (compared to recommended
occupational guidelines) to lead, cadmium, mercury and some other
metals, as well as BFRs, PCBs, dioxin and furans. Workers in formal
industry are also exposed to more brominated flame-retardants than
reference groups.^[152]
Hazard controls[edit]
For occupational health and safety of e-waste recycling workers, both
employers and workers should take actions. Suggestions for the e-waste
facility employers and workers given by California Department of Public
Health are illustrated in the graphic.
CAPTION: Safety suggestion for e-waste recycling facilities employers
and workers^[146]
Hazards What must employers do What should workers do
General Actions include:
1. Determine the hazards in the workplace and take actions to control
them;
2. Check and make correction to the workplace condition regularly;
3. Supply safe tools and PPE to workers;
4. Provide workers with training about hazards and safe work practice;
5. A written document about injury and illness prevention.
Suggestions include:
1. Wear PPE when working;
2. Talk with employers about ways to improve working conditions;
3. Report anything unsafe in the workplace to employers;
4. Share experience of how to work safely with new workers.
Dust Actions include:
1. Offer a clean eating area, cleaning area and supplies, uniforms and
shoes, and lockers for clean clothes to the workers;
2. Provide tools to dismantle the e-waste.
If the dust contains lead or cadmium:
1. Measure the dust, lead and cadmium level in the air;
2. Provide cleaning facilities such as wet mops and vacuums;
3. Provide exhaust ventilation. If it is still not sufficient to
reduce the dust, provide workers with respirators;
4. Provide workers with blood lead testing when lead level is not less
than 30 mg/m3.
Protective measures include:
1. Clean the workplace regularly, and do not eat or smoke when dealing
with e-waste;
2. Don't use brooms to clean the workplace since brooms can raise
dust;
3. Before going home, shower, change into clean clothes, and separate
the dirty work clothes and clean clothes;
4. Test the blood lead, even if the employers don't provide it;
5. Use respirator, check for leaks every time before use, always keep
it on your face in the respirator use area, and clean it properly
after use.
Cuts and lacerations Protective equipment such as gloves, masks and eye
protection equipments should be provided to workers When dealing with
glass or shredding materials, protect the hands and arms using special
gloves and oversleeves.
Noise Actions include:
1. Measure the noise in the workplace, and use engineering controls
when levels exceed the exposure limit;
2. Reduce the vibration of the working desk by rubber matting;
3. Provide workers with earmuffs when necessary.
Wear the hearing protection all the time when working. Ask for the
employer about the noise monitoring results. Test the hearing ability.
Lifting injuries Provide facilities to lift or move the e-waste and
adjustable work tables. When handling e-waste, try to decrease the load
per time. Try to get help from other workers when lifting heavy or big
things.
See also[edit]
* icon Environment portal
* icon Electronics portal
* 2000s commodities boom
* Computer Recycling
* Digger gold
* eDay
* Electronic waste in Japan
* Green computing
* Mobile phone recycling
* Material safety data sheet
* Polychlorinated biphenyls
* Retrocomputing
* Radio Row
Policy and conventions:
* Basel Action Network (BAN)
* Basel Convention
* China RoHS
* e-Stewards
* Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS)
* Soesterberg Principles
* Sustainable Electronics Initiative (SEI)
* Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive
Organizations:
* Asset Disposal and Information Security Alliance (ADISA)^[155]
* Empa
* IFixit
* International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement
* Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries (ISRI)
* Solving the E-waste Problem
* World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association
Security:
* Data erasure
General:
* Retail hazardous waste
* Waste
* Waste management
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Further reading[edit]
*
Hicks, C.; Dietmara, R.; Eugsterb, M. (2005). "The recycling and
disposal of electrical and electronic waste in China--legislative and
market responses". Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 25 (5):
459-471. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2005.04.007. ISSN 0195-9255.
Ogunseitan, O. A.; Schoenung, J. M.; Saphores, J-D. M.; Shapiro, A.
A. (2009). "The Electronics Revolution: From E-Wonderland to
E-Wasteland". Science. 326 (5953): 670-671.
doi:10.1126/science.1176929. PMID 19900918. S2CID 33860709.
Toxics Link (February 2003). "Scrapping the Hi-tech Myth: Computer
waste in India". India. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011.
Retrieved 25 March 2011.
Cheng, I-Hwa, E-waste Trafficking: From Your Home to China
United Nations University: THE GLOBAL E-WASTE MONITOR 2014 -
Quantities, flows and resources, 2015
Li, J.; Zeng, X.; Chen, M.; Ogunseitan, O.A.; Stevels, A. (2015).
""Control-Alt-Delete": Rebooting Solutions for the E-Waste Problem".
Environmental Science & Technology. 49 (12): 7095-7108.
Bibcode:2015EnST...49.7095L. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b00449.
PMID 26007633.
United Nations University (2 June 2020). The Global E-waste Monitor
2020 Quantities, flows and the circular economy potential 2020 (PDF).
Global E-waste Statistics Partnership. ISBN 978-92-808-9114-0.
Retrieved 2 July 2020. (13MB PDF)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Electronic waste.
*
Carroll, Chris (January 2008). "High-Tech Trash". National Geographic
Society.
Sustainable Management of Electronics
MOOC: Massive Online Open Course "Waste Management and Critical Raw
Materials" on (amongst others) recycling and reuse of electronics.
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