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Agriculture
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Cultivation of plants and animals to provide useful products
"Farming" redirects here. For other uses, see Farming (disambiguation).
Agriculture
Maler der Grabkammer des Sennudem 001.jpg
History
* History of organic farming
* Neolithic Revolution
* Agriculture in Mesopotamia
* Austronesian Expansion
* Agriculture in ancient Egypt
* Agriculture in ancient Greece
* Agriculture in ancient Rome
* Agriculture in Mesoamerica
* Agriculture in the Middle Ages
* Arab Agricultural Revolution
* Columbian exchange
* British Agricultural Revolution
* Green Revolution
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* Agrivoltaic
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Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and
livestock.^[1] Agriculture was the key development in the rise of
sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species
created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The
history of agriculture began thousands of years ago. After gathering
wild grains beginning at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began
to plant them around 11,500 years ago. Pigs, sheep, and cattle were
domesticated over 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently
cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture
based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to
dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people still
depended on subsistence agriculture.
The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods,
fibers, fuels, and raw materials (such as rubber). Food classes include
cereals (grains), vegetables, fruits, oils, meat, milk, eggs, and
fungi. Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in
agriculture, second only to the service sector, although in recent
decades, the global trend of a decreasing number of agricultural
workers continues, especially in developing countries, where
smallholding is being overtaken by industrial agriculture and
mechanization that brings an enormous crop yield increase.
Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and
fertilizers, and technological developments have sharply increased crop
yields, but cause ecological and environmental damage. Selective
breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly
increased the output of meat but have raised concerns about animal
welfare and environmental damage. Environmental issues include
contributions to global warming, depletion of aquifers, deforestation,
antibiotic resistance, and other agricultural pollution. Agriculture is
both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation, such as
biodiversity loss, desertification, soil degradation, and global
warming, all of which can cause decreases in crop yield. Genetically
modified organisms are widely used, although some are banned in certain
countries.
[ ]
Contents
* 1 Etymology and scope
* 2 History
+ 2.1 Origins
+ 2.2 Civilizations
+ 2.3 Revolution
* 3 Types
* 4 Contemporary agriculture
+ 4.1 Status
+ 4.2 Workforce
+ 4.3 Safety
* 5 Production
+ 5.1 Crop cultivation systems
+ 5.2 Livestock production systems
+ 5.3 Production practices
+ 5.4 Effects of climate change on yields
* 6 Crop alteration and biotechnology
+ 6.1 Plant breeding
+ 6.2 Genetic engineering
* 7 Environmental impact
+ 7.1 Effects and costs
+ 7.2 Livestock issues
+ 7.3 Land and water issues
+ 7.4 Pesticides
+ 7.5 Contributions to climate change
+ 7.6 Sustainability
+ 7.7 Energy dependence
+ 7.8 Plastic pollution
* 8 Disciplines
+ 8.1 Agricultural economics
+ 8.2 Agricultural science
* 9 Policy
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 12 Cited sources
* 13 External links
Etymology and scope
Further information: Horticulture S: Scope
The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin
agricultura, from ager 'field' and cultura 'cultivation' or
'growing'.^[2] While agriculture usually refers to human activities,
certain species of ant,^[3]^[4] termite and beetle have been
cultivating crops for up to 60 million years.^[5] Agriculture is
defined with varying scopes, in its broadest sense using natural
resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including food,
fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related
services".^[6] Thus defined, it includes arable farming, horticulture,
animal husbandry and forestry, but horticulture and forestry are in
practice often excluded.^[6] It may also be broadly decomposed into
plant agriculture, which concerns the cultivation of useful plants,^[7]
and animal agriculture, the production of agricultural animals.^[8]
History
Centres of origin, as numbered by Nikolai Vavilov in the 1930s. Area 3
(gray) is no longer recognised as a centre of origin, and New Guinea
(area P, orange) was identified more recently.^[9]^[10]
Main article: History of agriculture
Origins
Main article: Neolithic Revolution
The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow
many times larger than could be sustained by hunting and
gathering.^[11] Agriculture began independently in different parts of
the globe,^[12] and included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11
separate centers of origin.^[9] Wild grains were collected and eaten
from at least 105,000 years ago.^[13] In the Paleolithic Levant, 23,000
years ago, cereals cultivation of emmer, barley, and oats has been
observed near the sea of Galilee.^[14]^[15] Rice was domesticated in
China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation
from 5,700 BC,^[16] followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were
domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago.^[17]
Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern
Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago.^[18] Pig production emerged
in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,^[19] where
wild boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.^[20] In the
Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and
7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea
pigs. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New
Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel
region of Africa by 7,000 years ago. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by
5,600 years ago,^[21] and was independently domesticated in Eurasia. In
Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was bred into maize by 6,000 years ago.^[22]
Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to explain the historical
origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer
to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification
and increasing sedentism; examples are the Natufian culture in the
Levant, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands
that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually
came to be domesticated.^[23]^[24]^[25]
Civilizations
In Eurasia, the Sumerians started to live in villages from about 8,000
BC, relying on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and a canal system for
irrigation. Ploughs appear in pictographs around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs
around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils
and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs.^[26] Ancient
Egyptian agriculture relied on the Nile River and its seasonal
flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the
Paleolithic, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as
wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and
papyrus.^[27]^[28] In India, wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated
by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.^[29] Cattle, sheep and
goats were domesticated in Mehrgarh culture by 8,000-6,000
BC.^[30]^[31]^[32] Cotton was cultivated by the 5th-4th millennium
BC.^[33] Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawn plough from
2,500 BC in the Indus Valley civilisation.^[34]
In China, from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide granary system
and widespread silk farming.^[35] Water-powered grain mills were in use
by the 1st century BC,^[36] followed by irrigation.^[37] By the late
2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares
and mouldboards.^[38]^[39] These spread westwards across Eurasia.^[40]
Asian rice was domesticated 8,200-13,500 years ago - depending on the
molecular clock estimate that is used^[41]- on the Pearl River in
southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice Oryza
rufipogon.^[42] In Greece and Rome, the major cereals were wheat,
emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and
olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products.^[43]^[44]
Agricultural scenes of threshing, a grain store, harvesting with
sickles, digging, tree-cutting and ploughing from ancient Egypt. Tomb
of Nakht, 15th century BC
In the Americas, crops domesticated in Mesoamerica (apart from
teosinte) include squash, beans, and cacao.^[45] Cocoa was being
domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000
BC.^[46] The turkey was probably domesticated in Mexico or the American
Southwest.^[47] The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed
terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or
artificial islands. The Mayas used extensive canal and raised field
systems to farm swampland from 400 BC.^[48]^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52] Coca
was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and
pineapple.^[45] Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC.^[53]
Animals including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs were domesticated
there.^[54] In North America, the indigenous people of the East
domesticated crops such as sunflower, tobacco,^[55] squash and
Chenopodium.^[56]^[57] Wild foods including wild rice and maple sugar
were harvested.^[58] The domesticated strawberry is a hybrid of a
Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe
and North America.^[59] The indigenous people of the Southwest and the
Pacific Northwest practiced forest gardening and fire-stick farming.
The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a
low-intensity fire ecology that sustained a low-density agriculture in
loose rotation; a sort of "wild" permaculture.^[60]^[61]^[62]^[63] A
system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed in
North America. The three crops were winter squash, maize, and climbing
beans.^[64]^[65]
Indigenous Australians, long supposed to have been nomadic
hunter-gatherers, practised systematic burning, possibly to enhance
natural productivity in fire-stick farming.^[66] Scholars have pointed
out that hunter-gatherers need a productive environment to support
gathering without cultivation. Because the forests of New Guinea have
few food plants, early humans may have used "selective burning" to
increase the productivity of the wild karuka fruit trees to support the
hunter-gatherer way of life.^[67]
The Gunditjmara and other groups developed eel farming and fish
trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago.^[68] There is evidence of
'intensification' across the whole continent over that period.^[69] In
two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central,
early farmers cultivated yams, native millet, and bush onions, possibly
in permanent settlements.^[25]^[70]
Revolution
Agricultural calendar, c. 1470, from a manuscript of Pietro de
Crescenzi
In the Middle Ages, compared to the Roman period, agriculture in
Western Europe became more focused on self-sufficiency. The
agricultural population under feudalism was typically organized into
manors consisting of several hundred or more acres of land presided
over by a Lord with a Roman Catholic church and priest.^[71]
Thanks to the exchange with the Al-Andalus where the Arab agricultural
revolution was underway, European agriculture transformed with improved
techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction
of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees (such as the orange).^[72]
After 1492 the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as
maize, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc to Europe, and Old
World crops such as wheat, barley, rice and turnips, and livestock
(including horses, cattle, sheep and goats) to the Americas.^[73]
Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers advanced from the 17th
century with the British Agricultural Revolution, allowing global
population to rise significantly. Since 1900 agriculture in developed
nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large
rises in productivity as mechanization replaces human labor, and
assisted by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective breeding.
The Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate
fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields and
sustaining a further increase in global population.^[74]^[75] Modern
agriculture has raised or encountered ecological, political, and
economic issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically
modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies, leading to alternative
approaches such as the organic movement.^[76]^[77] In the 1930, there
was a Dust Bowl in the United States with tragic consequences.^[78]
Types
Reindeer herds form the basis of pastoral agriculture for several
Arctic and Subarctic peoples.
Harvesting wheat with a combine harvester accompanied by a tractor and
trailer
Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals. In nomadic
pastoralism, herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search
of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practised in
arid and semi-arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of
India.^[79]
Spreading manure by hand in Zambia
In shifting cultivation, a small area of forest is cleared by cutting
and burning the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a
few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is
abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is
repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with
abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice
is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin.^[80]
Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy family or local needs
alone, with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively
practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia.^[81] An estimated 2.5
billion subsistence farmers worked in 2018, cultivating about 60% of
the earth's arable land.^[82]
Intensive farming is cultivation to maximise productivity, with a low
fallow ratio and a high use of inputs (water, fertilizer, pesticide and
automation). It is practiced mainly in developed countries.^[83]^[84]
Contemporary agriculture
Status
China has the largest agricultural output of any country.^[85]
From the twentieth century, intensive agriculture increased
productivity of crops. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides for labour, but caused increased water pollution, and often
involved farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash
against the environmental effects of conventional agriculture,
resulting in the organic, regenerative, and sustainable agriculture
movements.^[76]^[86] One of the major forces behind this movement has
been the European Union, which first certified organic food in 1991 and
began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase
out commodity-linked farm subsidies,^[87] also known as decoupling. The
growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative
technologies such as integrated pest management, selective
breeding,^[88] and controlled-environment agriculture.^[89]^[90] Recent
mainstream technological developments include genetically modified
food.^[91] Demand for non-food biofuel crops,^[92] development of
former farm lands, rising transportation costs, climate change, growing
consumer demand in China and India, and population growth,^[93] are
threatening food security in many parts of the
world.^[94]^[95]^[96]^[97]^[98] The International Fund for Agricultural
Development posits that an increase in smallholder agriculture may be
part of the solution to concerns about food prices and overall food
security, given the favorable experience of Vietnam.^[99] Soil
degradation and diseases such as stem rust are major concerns
globally;^[100] approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is
seriously degraded.^[101]^[102] By 2015, the agricultural output of
China was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union,
India and the United States.^[85] Economists measure the total factor
productivity of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the
United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in
1948.^[103]
Workforce
On the three-sector theory, the proportion of people working in
agriculture (left-hard bar in each group, green) falls as an economy
becomes more developed.
Following the three-sector theory, the number of people employed in
agriculture and other primary activities (such as fishing) can be more
than 80% in the least developed countries, and less than 2% in the most
highly developed countries.^[104] Since the Industrial Revolution, many
countries have made the transition to developed economies, and the
proportion of people working in agriculture has steadily fallen. During
the 16th century in Europe, for example, between 55 and 75% of the
population was engaged in agriculture; by the 19th century, this had
dropped to between 35 and 65%.^[105] In the same countries today, the
figure is less than 10%.^[104] At the start of the 21st century, some
one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, were
employed in agriculture. It constitutes approximately 70% of the global
employment of children, and in many countries employs the largest
percentage of women of any industry.^[106] The service sector overtook
the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007.^[107]
Safety
Rollover protection bar retrofitted to a mid-20th century Fordson
tractor
Main article: Agricultural safety and health
Agriculture, specifically farming, remains a hazardous industry, and
farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung
disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, as well as certain
cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On
industrialized farms, injuries frequently involve the use of
agricultural machinery, and a common cause of fatal agricultural
injuries in developed countries is tractor rollovers.^[108] Pesticides
and other chemicals used in farming can be hazardous to worker health,
and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have
children with birth defects.^[109] As an industry in which families
commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can
be at risk for injuries, illness, and death.^[110] Ages 0-6 May be an
especially vulnerable population in agriculture;^[111] common causes of
fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and
motor accidents, including with all-terrain vehicles.^[110]^[111]^[112]
The International Labour Organization considers agriculture "one of the
most hazardous of all economic sectors".^[106] It estimates that the
annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least
170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences
of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often
go unreported.^[113] The organization has developed the Safety and
Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001, which covers the range of risks
in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the
role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should
play.^[106]
In the United States, agriculture has been identified by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as a priority industry
sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda to identify and
provide intervention strategies for occupational health and safety
issues.^[114]^[115] In the European Union, the European Agency for
Safety and Health at Work has issued guidelines on implementing health
and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture,
and forestry.^[116] The Agricultural Safety and Health Council of
America (ASHCA) also holds a yearly summit to discuss safety.^[117]
Production
Main article: List of countries by GDP sector composition
See also: List of most important agricultural crops worldwide
Value of agricultural production, 2016^[118]
Overall production varies by country as listed.
Largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) according
to IMF and CIA World Factbook, at peak level as of 2018
CAPTION:
Economy
Countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of
2018 (billions in USD)
(01) China
1,117
(02) India
414
(--) European Union
308
(03) United States
185
(04) Brazil
162
(05) Indonesia
141
(06) Nigeria
123
(07) Russia
108
(08) Pakistan
76
(09) Argentina
70
(10) Turkey
64
(11) Japan
62
(12) France
59
(13) Iran
57
(14) Australia
56
(15) Mexico
51
(16) Italy
50
(17) Spain
43
(18) Bangladesh
41
(19) Thailand
40
(20) Egypt
40
The twenty largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms)
at peak level as of 2018, according to the IMF and CIA World Factbook.
Largest countries by agricultural output according to UNCTAD at 2005
constant prices and exchange rates, 2015^[85]
CAPTION:
Economy
Countries by agricultural output in 2015 (millions in 2005 constant USD
and exchange rates)
(01) China
418,455
(02) India
196,592
(03) United States
149,023
(04) Nigeria
77,113
(05) Brazil
59,977
Crop cultivation systems
Slash and burn shifting cultivation, Thailand
Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources
and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy;
economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and
culture of the farmer.^[119]^[120]
Shifting cultivation (or slash and burn) is a system in which forests
are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and
then perennial crops for a period of several years.^[121] Then the plot
is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot,
returning after many more years (10-20). This fallow period is
shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients
(fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation
is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This
requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.^[121]
Intercropping of coconut and Mexican marigold
Further industrialization led to the use of monocultures, when one
cultivar is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low
biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up,
necessitating the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers.^[120]
Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one
year, and intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same time,
are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures.^[121]
In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of
agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple
annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these
environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems
are practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where
ecosystems were predominantly grassland or prairie, highly productive
annual farming is the dominant agricultural system.^[121]
Important categories of food crops include cereals, legumes, forage,
fruits and vegetables.^[122] Natural fibers include cotton, wool, hemp,
silk and flax.^[123] Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing
regions throughout the world. Production is listed in millions of
metric tons, based on FAO estimates.^[122]
Top agricultural products, by crop types
(million tonnes) 2004 data
Cereals 2,263
Vegetables and melons 866
Roots and tubers 715
Milk 619
Fruit 503
Meat 259
Oilcrops 133
Fish (2001 estimate) 130
Eggs 63
Pulses 60
Vegetable fiber 30
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization^[122]
Top agricultural products, by individual crops
(million tonnes) 2011 data
Sugar cane 1794
Maize 883
Rice 722
Wheat 704
Potatoes 374
Sugar beet 271
Soybeans 260
Cassava 252
Tomatoes 159
Barley 134
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization^[122]
Livestock production systems
Main articles: Livestock and Animal husbandry
See also: List of domesticated animals
Intensively farmed pigs
Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk,
eggs, or wool, and for work and transport.^[124] Working animals,
including horses, mules, oxen, water buffalo, camels, llamas, alpacas,
donkeys, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate
fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm
products to buyers.^[125]
Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as
grassland-based, mixed, and landless.^[126] As of 2010^[update], 30% of
Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with
the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the
1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock
production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among
beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased
by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and
egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases.
Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to
increase sharply through 2050.^[127] Aquaculture or fish farming, the
production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one
of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an
average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.^[128]
During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective
breeding focused on creating livestock breeds and crossbreeds that
increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve
genetic diversity. This trend has led to a significant decrease in
genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a
corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations
previously found among traditional breeds.^[129]
Raising chickens intensively for meat in a broiler house
Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as
shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for feeding ruminant animals.
Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned
directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is
particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible
because of climate or soil, representing 30-40 million
pastoralists.^[121] Mixed production systems use grassland, fodder
crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one
stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically
recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.^[126]
Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the
de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development member
countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop
production and manure use becomes a challenge as well as a source for
pollution.^[126] Industrialized countries use these operations to
produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists
estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003
and 2030 will be in confined animal feeding operations, sometimes
called factory farming. Much of this growth is happening in developing
countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa.^[127]
Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production,
including the usage of growth hormones, are controversial.^[130]
Production practices
Tilling an arable field
Further information: Tillage, Crop rotation, and Irrigation
Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the
plow or harrow to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or
for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to
no-till. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating
fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to
erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO[2],
and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.^[131]^[132]
Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects, mites, and
diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical
(tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include
crop rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting,
avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use
all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which
would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last
resort.^[133]
Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for
crop and livestock production, and the method of use of manure produced
by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers,
manure, green manure, compost and minerals.^[134] Crop nutrient use may
also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a
fallow period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the
feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing,
or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland
or pastures.^[131]^[135]
A center pivot irrigation system
Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable,
which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world.^[121] Some
farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as
the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to
conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following
year.^[136] Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use
worldwide.^[137]
According to a report by the International Food Policy Research
Institute, agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on
food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a
model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural
productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food
Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from
hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be
reduced by almost half.^[138]
Payment for ecosystem services is a method of providing additional
incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the
environment. Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream
of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water.^[139]
Effects of climate change on yields
Main article: Effects of climate change on agriculture
Winnowing grain: global warming will probably harm crop yields in low
latitude countries like Ethiopia.
Climate change and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale.
Global warming affects agriculture through changes in average
temperatures, rainfall, and weather extremes (like storms and heat
waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon
dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the
nutritional quality of some foods;^[140] and changes in sea
level.^[141] Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with
effects unevenly distributed across the world.^[142] Future climate
change will probably negatively affect crop production in low latitude
countries, while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or
negative.^[142] Global warming will probably increase the risk of food
insecurity for some vulnerable groups, such as the poor.^[143]
Crop alteration and biotechnology
Plant breeding
Main article: Plant breeding
Wheat cultivar tolerant of high salinity (left) compared with
non-tolerant variety
Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years,
since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding
practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with
more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits
or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant
advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist Gregor
Mendel. His work on dominant and recessive alleles, although initially
largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better
understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding
includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits,
self-pollination and cross-pollination, and molecular techniques that
genetically modify the organism.^[144]
Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield,
improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and
improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful
selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics
of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s
improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray
and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic
engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties
of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.^[145]^[146]
Seedlings in a green house. This is what it looks like when seedlings
are growing from plant breeding.
The Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization
to sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For
example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from
around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to
about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide
average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to
more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are
around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to
4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in
countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due
mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive
farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth
control to avoid lodging).^[147]^[148]^[149]
Genetic engineering
Main article: Genetic engineering
See also: Genetically modified food, Genetically modified crops,
Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms, and
Genetically modified food controversies
Genetically modified potato plants (left) resist virus diseases that
damage unmodified plants (right).
Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms whose genetic
material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally
known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded
the genes available to breeders to use in creating desired germlines
for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and
virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes
bred into crops through genetic engineering.^[150] For some, GMO crops
cause food safety and food labeling concerns. Numerous countries have
placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and
crops.^[151] Currently a global treaty, the Biosafety Protocol,
regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the
labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires
all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not.^[152]
Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its genome that
allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, including
glyphosate. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be
sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant
crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide.^[153]
With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase
in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas
glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to
other herbicides.^[154]^[155] Some studies also link widespread
glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a
crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential
economic and health implications.^[156]
Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which
have a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which
produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by
insects.^[157] Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance
traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and
resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or
cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are
the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that
have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing
with wild populations of tomatoes.^[158]
Environmental impact
Main article: Environmental issues with agriculture
Effects and costs
Water pollution in a rural stream due to runoff from farming activity
in New Zealand
Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental
degradation, such as biodiversity loss, desertification, soil
degradation and global warming, which cause decrease in crop
yield.^[159] Agriculture is one of the most important drivers of
environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change,
water use and toxic emissions. Agriculture is the main source of toxins
released into the environment, including insecticides, especially those
used on cotton.^[160]^[161]^[page needed] The 2011 UNEP Green Economy
report stated that agricultural operations produced some 13 per cent of
anthropogenic global greenhouse gas emissions. This includes gases from
the use of inorganic fertilizers, agro-chemical pesticides, and
herbicides, as well as fossil fuel-energy inputs.^[162]
Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through
effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and
insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of
natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK
determined total external costs for 1996 of -L-2,343 million, or -L-208
per hectare.^[163] A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded
that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per
hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million.^[164] Both
studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that
more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included
subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also
influence the cost of agriculture to society.^[163]^[164]
Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs. Yield
increases with inputs such as fertilisers and removal of pathogens,
predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with
increasing scale of farm units, such as making fields larger; this
means removing hedges, ditches and other areas of habitat. Pesticides
kill insects, plants and fungi. These and other measures have cut
biodiversity to very low levels on intensively farmed land.^[165]
Effective yields fall with on-farm losses, which may be caused by poor
production practices during harvesting, handling, and storage.^[166]
Livestock issues
Farmyard anaerobic digester converts waste plant material and manure
from livestock into biogas fuel.
A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one
of the most significant contributors to today's most serious
environmental problems".^[167] Livestock production occupies 70% of all
land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It
is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18%
of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO[2]
equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the
CO[2]. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296
times the global warming potential of CO[2]) and 37% of all
human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO[2].) It also
generates 64% of the ammonia emission. Livestock expansion is cited as
a key factor driving deforestation; in the Amazon basin 70% of
previously forested area is now occupied by pastures and the remainder
used for feed crops.^[168] Through deforestation and land degradation,
livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. Furthermore, the
UNEP states that "methane emissions from global livestock are projected
to increase by 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices and
consumption patterns."^[162]
Land and water issues
See also: Environmental impact of irrigation
Circular irrigated crop fields in Kansas. Healthy, growing crops of
corn and sorghum are green (sorghum may be slightly paler). Wheat is
brilliant gold. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and plowed
or have lain in fallow for the year.
Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is
the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is
the driving force causing biodiversity loss. Estimates of the amount of
land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%.^[169] Land degradation,
the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, is
estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland
overrepresented.^[170] Land management is the driving factor behind
degradation; 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land.
Degradation can be through deforestation, desertification, soil
erosion, mineral depletion, acidification, or salinization.^[121]
Eutrophication, excessive nutrient enrichment in aquatic ecosystems
resulting in algal blooms and anoxia, leads to fish kills, loss of
biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial
uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as
well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly
nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff and leaching from agricultural land.
These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contributing to
eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater, with
harmful effects on human populations.^[171] Fertilisers also reduce
terrestrial biodiversity by increasing competition for light, favouring
those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients.^[172]
Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater
resources.^[173]^[174] Agriculture is a major draw on water from
aquifers, and currently draws from those underground water sources at
an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as
diverse as northern China, the Upper Ganges and the western US are
being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in
Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia.^[175] Increasing pressure is being
placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that
water scarcity is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of
producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced
water resources.^[176] Agricultural water usage can also cause major
environmental problems, including the destruction of natural wetlands,
the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through
salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed
incorrectly.^[177]
Pesticides
Main article: Environmental impact of pesticides
Spraying a crop with a pesticide
Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million short tons
annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively
constant.^[178] The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that
three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000
deaths.^[179] Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest
population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in
which pest resistance warrants the development of a new
pesticide.^[180]
An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and
prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming,
a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues
website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for
nature'.^[181]^[182] However, critics argue that a trade-off between
the environment and a need for food is not inevitable,^[183] and that
pesticides simply replace good agronomic practices such as crop
rotation.^[180] The Push-pull agricultural pest management technique
involves intercropping, using plant aromas to repel pests from crops
(push) and to lure them to a place from which they can then be removed
(pull).^[184]
Contributions to climate change
Main article: Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
Agriculture, and in particular animal husbandry, is responsible for
greenhouse gas emissions of CO[2] and a percentage of the world's
methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of wildlife.
Agriculture contributes to climate change by anthropogenic emissions of
greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such
as forest for agricultural use.^[185] Agriculture, forestry and
land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global annual emissions
in 2010.^[186] A range of policies can reduce the risk of negative
climate change impacts on agriculture,^[187]^[188] and greenhouse gas
emissions from the agriculture sector.^[189]^[190]^[191]
Sustainability
Terraces, conservation tillage and conservation buffers reduce soil
erosion and water pollution on this farm in Iowa.
Main article: Sustainable agriculture
Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water
resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is
not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore
how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost
crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to
ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and
balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests.^[192]
Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be
addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the
clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the
preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.^[193]
Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and
resources to make farming more sustainable.^[194] Technology permits
innovations like conservation tillage, a farming process which helps
prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhances
carbon sequestration.^[195] Other potential practices include
conservation agriculture, agroforestry, improved grazing, avoided
grassland conversion, and biochar.^[196]^[197] Current mono-crop
farming practices in the United States preclude widespread adoption of
sustainable practices, such as 2-3 crop rotations that incorporate
grass or hay with annual crops, unless negative emission goals such as
soil carbon sequestration become policy.^[198]
The International Food Policy Research Institute states that
agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food
production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model
that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural
productivity, food security and trade by 2050, it found that the number
of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and
food prices could be reduced by almost half.^[138] The food demand of
Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions,
could be satisfied by improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of
agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer
mindset.^[199]
Energy dependence
Mechanised agriculture: from the first models in the 1940s, tools like
a cotton picker could replace 50 farm workers, at the price of
increased use of fossil fuel.
Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically,
due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization,
fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input
comes from fossil fuel sources.^[200] Between the 1960s and the 1980s,
the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with
world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390%
for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area)^[201]
as world population doubled. Heavy reliance on petrochemicals has
raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce
agricultural output.^[202]
Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental
ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on
the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels
to operate farm vehicles and machinery.^[202]
Agriculture and food system share (%) of total energy
consumption by three industrialized nations^[needs update]
Country Year Agriculture
(direct & indirect) Food
system
United Kingdom^[203] 2005 1.9 11
United States^[204] 2002 2.0 14
Sweden^[205] 2000 2.5 13
Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers,
pesticides, and farm machinery.^[202] In particular, the production of
nitrogen fertilizer can account for over half of agricultural energy
usage.^[206] Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms
accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect
energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has since
gradually declined.^[202] Food systems encompass not just agriculture
but off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing,
consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture
accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the
US.^[204]^[207]
Plastic pollution
Main articles: Plastic pollution and plasticulture
Plastic products are used extensively in agriculture, for example to
increase crop yield and improve the efficiency of water and
agrichemical use. "Agriplastic" products include films to cover
greenhouses and tunnels, mulch to cover soil (e.g. to suppress weeds,
conserve water, increase soil temperature and aid fertilizer
application), shade cloth, pesticide containers, seedling trays,
protective mesh and irrigation tubing. The polymers most commonly used
in these products are low- density polyethylene (LPDE), linear
low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC).^[208]
The total amount of plastics used in agriculture is difficult to
quantify. A 2012 study reported that almost 6.5 million tonnes per year
were consumed globally while a later study estimated that global demand
in 2015 was between 7.3 million and 9 million tonnes. Widespread use of
plastic mulch and lack of systematic collection and management have led
to the generation of large amounts of mulch residue. Weathering and
degradation eventually cause the mulch to fragment. These fragments and
larger pieces of plastic accumulate in soil. Mulch residue has been
measured at levels of 50 to 260 kg per hectare in topsoil in areas
where the mulch has been used for more than 10 years, which confirms
that mulching is a major source of both microplastic and macroplastic
contamination of soil.^[208]
Agricultural plastics, especially plastic films, are not easy to
recycle because of high contamination levels (up to 40- 50% by weight
contamination by pesticides, fertilizers, soil and debris, moist
vegetation, silage juice water, and UV stabilizers) and collection
difficulties . Therefore, they are often buried or abandoned in fields
and watercourses or burned. These disposal practices lead to soil
degradation and can result in contamination of soils and leakage of
microplastics into the marine environment as a result of precipitation
run-off and tidal washing. In addition, additives in residual plastic
film (such as UV and thermal stabilizers) may have deleterious effects
on crop growth, soil structure, nutrient transport and salt levels.
There is a risk that plastic mulch will deteriorate soil quality,
deplete soil organic matter stocks, increase soil water repellence and
emit greenhouse gases. Microplastics released through fragmentation of
agricultural plastics can absorb and concentrate contaminants capable
of being passed up the trophic chain.^[208]
Disciplines
Agricultural economics
Main article: Agricultural economics
In 19th century Britain, the protectionist Corn Laws led to high prices
and widespread protest, such as this 1846 meeting of the Anti-Corn Law
League.^[209]
Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production,
distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and
services".^[210] Combining agricultural production with general
theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in
the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century.^[211]
Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent,
major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and
international economies throughout history, ranging from tenant farmers
and sharecropping in the post-American Civil War Southern United
States^[212] to the European feudal system of manorialism.^[213] In the
United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to food processing,
distribution, and agricultural marketing, sometimes referred to as the
value chain, have risen while the costs attributed to farming have
declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming,
combined with the increased level of value addition (e.g. more highly
processed products) provided by the supply chain. Market concentration
has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of
the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the
changes redistribute economic surplus from producers (farmers) and
consumers, and may have negative implications for rural
communities.^[214]
National government policies can significantly change the economic
marketplace for agricultural products, in the form of taxation,
subsidies, tariffs and other measures.^[215] Since at least the 1960s,
a combination of trade restrictions, exchange rate policies and
subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the
developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing
countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that
created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the
mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited
agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.^[216]
However, as of 2009^[update], there was still a significant amount of
policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The
three agricultural products with the most trade distortion were sugar,
milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the oilseeds, sesame had
the most taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower
levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s,
policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock
products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural
policy.^[215] Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton,
still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating
global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with
non-subsidized farmers.^[217] Unprocessed commodities such as corn,
soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality,
affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally
reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or
weight.^[218]
Agricultural science
Main article: Agricultural science
Further information: Agronomy
An agronomist mapping a plant genome
Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that
encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences
used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics
such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, plant pathology, crop
modelling, soil science, entomology, production techniques and
improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse
environmental effects such as soil degradation, waste management, and
bioremediation.^[219]^[220]
The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when
Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum
(hydrated calcium sulphate) as a fertilizer.^[221] Research became more
systematic when in 1843, John Lawes and Henry Gilbert began a set of
long-term agronomy field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in
England; some of them, such as the Park Grass Experiment, are still
running.^[222]^[223] In America, the Hatch Act of 1887 provided funding
for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by
farmers' interest in fertilizers.^[224] In agricultural entomology, the
USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its
first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural
enemies of the gypsy moth and brown-tail moth, establishing parasitoids
(such as solitary wasps) and predators of both pests in the
USA.^[225]^[226]^[227]
Policy
Main article: Agricultural policy
CAPTION: Direct subsidies for animal products and feed by OECD
countries in 2012, in billions of US dollars^[228]
Product Subsidy
Beef and veal 18.0
Milk 15.3
Pigs 7.3
Poultry 6.5
Soybeans 2.3
Eggs 1.5
Sheep 1.1
Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions and actions
relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural
products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the
goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural
product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and
adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety
and natural disasters), economic stability (including policies related
to taxes), natural resources and environmental sustainability
(especially water policy), research and development, and market access
for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations
and agreements with other countries).^[229] Agricultural policy can
also touch on food quality, ensuring that the food supply is of a
consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food
supply meets the population's needs, and conservation. Policy programs
can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging
producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.^[230]
There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy,
including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and other groups.
Agribusiness interests hold a large amount of influence over policy
making, in the form of lobbying and campaign contributions. Political
action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and
labor unions, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations
representing individual agricultural commodities.^[231] The Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) leads
international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the
negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Samuel
Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states
that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would
improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in
2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that
would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and
environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of
land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated
due to large food company pressure.^[232]
See also
Main article: Outline of agriculture
* Aeroponics
* Agricultural aircraft
* Agricultural engineering
* Agricultural machinery
* Agricultural robot
* Agroecology
* Agribusiness
* Agrominerals
* Building-integrated agriculture
* Contract farming
* Corporate farming
* Crofting
* Ecoagriculture
* Hill farming
* List of documentary films about agriculture
* Pharming (genetics)
* Remote sensing
* Subsistence economy
* Sustainable agriculture
* Vertical farming
* Vegetable farming
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