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Aaron Swartz
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Computer programmer and internet/political activist
For other people with similar names, see Aaron Swartz (actor) and Aaron
Schwartz (disambiguation).
Aaron Swartz
Aaron Swartz profile.jpg
Aaron at Creative Commons events (December 13, 2008)
Born
Aaron Hillel Swartz^[1]
(1986-11-08)November 8, 1986
Highland Park, Illinois,^[2] U.S.
Died January 11, 2013(2013-01-11) (aged 26)
Brooklyn, New York City, U.S.
Cause of death Suicide by hanging
Alma mater Stanford University
Occupation Software developer, writer, internet activist
Organization Creative Commons (development), Reddit (co-founder),
Watchdog.net, Open Library, DeadDrop, Progressive Change Campaign
Committee, Demand Progress (co-founder), ThoughtWorks, Tor2web
Title Fellow, Harvard University Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics
Awards ArsDigita Prize (2000)
American Library Association's James Madison Award (posthumously)
EFF Pioneer Award 2013 (posthumously)
Internet Hall of Fame 2013 (posthumously)
Website aaronsw.com
Aaron Hillel Swartz (November 8, 1986 - January 11, 2013) was an
American computer programmer, entrepreneur, writer, political
organizer, and Internet hacktivist. He was involved in the development
of the web feed format RSS,^[3] the Markdown publishing format,^[4] the
organization Creative Commons,^[5] and the website framework
web.py,^[6] and joined the social news site Reddit six months after its
founding.^[7] He was given the title of co-founder of Reddit by Y
Combinator owner Paul Graham after the formation of Not a Bug, Inc. (a
merger of Swartz's project Infogami and Redbrick Solutions,^[8] a
company run by Alexis Ohanian and Steve Huffman). Swartz's work also
focused on civic awareness and activism.^[9]^[10] He helped launch the
Progressive Change Campaign Committee in 2009 to learn more about
effective online activism. In 2010, he became a research fellow at
Harvard University's Safra Research Lab on Institutional Corruption,
directed by Lawrence Lessig.^[11]^[12] He founded the online group
Demand Progress, known for its campaign against the Stop Online Piracy
Act.
In 2011, Swartz was arrested by Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) police on state breaking-and-entering charges, after connecting a
computer to the MIT network in an unmarked and unlocked closet, and
setting it to download academic journal articles systematically from
JSTOR using a guest user account issued to him by MIT.^[13]^[14]
Federal prosecutors later charged him with two counts of wire fraud and
eleven violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act,^[15] carrying a
cumulative maximum penalty of $1 million in fines, 35 years in prison,
asset forfeiture, restitution, and supervised release.^[16] Swartz
declined a plea bargain under which he would have served six months in
federal prison.^[17] Two days after the prosecution rejected a
counter-offer by Swartz, he was found dead in his Brooklyn apartment,
where he had committed suicide.^[18]^[19] In 2013, Swartz was inducted
posthumously into the Internet Hall of Fame.^[20]
[ ]
Contents
* 1 Early life
+ 1.1 Entrepreneurship
* 2 Activism
+ 2.1 PACER
+ 2.2 Progressive Change Campaign Committee
+ 2.3 Demand Progress
+ 2.4 Stopping the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)
+ 2.5 Wikipedia
* 3 United States v. Aaron Swartz case
+ 3.1 Response from JSTOR
+ 3.2 Arrest and prosecution
* 4 Death, funeral, and memorial gatherings
+ 4.1 Death
+ 4.2 Funeral and memorial gatherings
* 5 Response
+ 5.1 Family response
+ 5.2 MIT
+ 5.3 Press
+ 5.4 Internet
o 5.4.1 Hacks
o 5.4.2 Petition to the White House
+ 5.5 Commemorations
* 6 Legacy
+ 6.1 Open Access
+ 6.2 Congress
o 6.2.1 Congressional investigations
o 6.2.2 Amendment to Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
o 6.2.3 Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act
* 7 Media
+ 7.1 The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz
+ 7.2 Killswitch
+ 7.3 Other films
* 8 Works
+ 8.1 Specifications
+ 8.2 Software
+ 8.3 Publication
* 9 Notes
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 12 External links
+ 12.1 Further reading
+ 12.2 Documentary
Early life[edit]
Swartz in 2002 with Lawrence Lessig at the launch party for Creative
Commons
File:Aaron Swartz - The Network Transformation.webm Play media
Swartz describes the nature of the shift from centralized one-to-many
systems to the decentralized many-to-many topology of network
communication. San Francisco, April 2007 (9:29)
Swartz was born in Highland Park, Illinois^[2]^[21] (a suburb of
Chicago), the eldest son of Jewish parents Susan and Robert Swartz, and
brother of Noah and Binjamin.^[1]^[22] His father had founded the
software firm Mark Williams Company. Swartz immersed himself in the
study of computers, programming, the Internet, and Internet
culture.^[23] He attended North Shore Country Day School, a small
private school near Chicago, until 9th grade.^[24] Swartz left high
school in the 10th grade, and enrolled in courses at Lake Forest
College.^[25]^[26]
In 1999, when he was 13 years old he created the website Theinfo.org, a
collaborative online library.^[27] Theinfo.org made Swartz the winner
of the ArsDigita Prize, given to young people who create "useful,
educational, and collaborative" noncommercial websites.^[1]^[28]^[29]
At age 14, he became a member of the working group that authored the
RSS 1.0 web syndication specification. Swartz attended Stanford
University, but dropped out after his first year.^[30]
Entrepreneurship[edit]
During Swartz's first year at Stanford, he applied to Y Combinator's
very first Summer Founders Program, proposing to work on a startup
called Infogami, designed as a flexible content management system to
allow the creation of rich and visually interesting websites^[31] or a
form of wiki for structured data. After working on Infogami with
co-founder Simon Carstensen over the summer of 2005, Aaron opted not to
return to Stanford, choosing instead to continue to develop and seek
funding for Infogami.^[31]
As part of his work on Infogami, Swartz created the web.py web
application framework because he was unhappy with other available
systems in the Python programming language. In early fall of 2005,
Swartz worked with his fellow co-founders of another nascent
Y-Combinator firm Reddit, to rewrite Reddit's Lisp codebase using
Python and web.py. Although Infogami's platform was abandoned after Not
a Bug was acquired, Infogami's software was used to support the
Internet Archive's Open Library project and the web.py web framework
was used as basis for many other projects by Swartz and many
others.^[6]
When Infogami failed to find further funding, Y-Combinator organizers
suggested that Infogami merge with Reddit,^[32]^[33] which it did in
November 2005, resulting in the formation of a new firm, Not a Bug,
devoted to promoting both products.^[32]^[34] As a result of this
merger, Swartz was given the title of co-founder of Reddit. Although
both projects initially struggled to gain traction, Reddit began to
make large gains in popularity in 2005 and 2006.
In October 2006, based largely on the success of Reddit, Not a Bug was
acquired by Conde Nast Publications, the owner of Wired
magazine.^[23]^[35] Swartz moved with his company to San Francisco to
work on Wired.^[23] Swartz found office life uncongenial, and he
ultimately left the company.^[36] In September 2007, Swartz joined with
Infogami co-founder Simon Carstensen to launch a new firm, Jottit, in
another attempt to create another markdown driven content management
system in Python.^[37]
Activism[edit]
In 2008, Swartz founded Watchdog.net, "the good government site with
teeth," to aggregate and visualize data about politicians.^[38]^[39] In
the same year, he wrote a widely circulated Guerilla Open Access
Manifesto.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43] On December 27, 2010, Swartz filed a
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request to learn about the treatment
of Chelsea Manning, alleged source for WikiLeaks.^[44]^[45]
PACER[edit]
In 2008, Swartz downloaded about 2.7 million federal court documents
stored in the PACER (Public Access to Court Electronic Records)
database managed by the Administrative Office of the United States
Courts.^[46]
The Huffington Post characterized his actions this way: "Swartz
downloaded public court documents from the PACER system in an effort to
make them available outside of the expensive service. The move drew the
attention of the FBI, which ultimately decided not to press charges as
the documents were, in fact, public."^[47]
PACER was charging 8 cents per page for information that Carl Malamud,
who founded the nonprofit group Public.Resource.Org, contended should
be free, because federal documents are not covered by
copyright.^[48]^[49] The fees were "plowed back to the courts to
finance technology, but the system [ran] a budget surplus of some
$150 million, according to court reports," reported The New York
Times.^[48] PACER used technology that was "designed in the bygone days
of screechy telephone modems ... putting the nation's legal system
behind a wall of cash and kludge."^[48] Malamud appealed to fellow
activists, urging them to visit one of 17 libraries conducting a free
trial of the PACER system, download court documents, and send them to
him for public distribution.^[48]
After reading Malamud's call for action,^[48] Swartz used a Perl
computer script running on Amazon cloud servers to download the
documents, using credentials belonging to a Sacramento library.^[46]
From September 4 to 20, 2008, it accessed documents and uploaded them
to a cloud computing service.^[49] He released the documents to
Malamud's organization.^[49]
On September 29, 2008,^[48] the GPO suspended the free trial, "pending
an evaluation" of the program.^[48]^[49] Swartz's actions were
subsequently investigated by the FBI.^[48]^[49] The case was closed
after two months with no charges filed.^[49] Swartz learned the details
of the investigation as a result of filing a FOIA request with the FBI
and described their response as the "usual mess of confusions that
shows the FBI's lack of sense of humor."^[49] PACER still charges per
page, but customers using Firefox have the option of saving the
documents for free public access with a plug-in called RECAP.^[50]
At a 2013 memorial for Swartz, Malamud recalled their work with PACER.
They brought millions of U.S. District Court records out from behind
PACER's "pay wall", he said, and found them full of privacy violations,
including medical records and the names of minor children and
confidential informants.
We sent our results to the Chief Judges of 31 District Courts ...
They redacted those documents and they yelled at the lawyers that
filed them ... The Judicial Conference changed their privacy rules.
... [To] the bureaucrats who ran the Administrative Office of the
United States Courts ... we were thieves that took $1.6 million of
their property. So they called the FBI ... [The FBI] found nothing
wrong ...^[51]
Malamud penned a more detailed account of his collaboration with Swartz
on the Pacer project in an essay that appears on his website.^[52]
Writing in Ars Technica, Timothy Lee,^[53] who later made use of the
documents obtained by Swartz as a co-creator of RECAP, offered some
insight into discrepancies in reporting on just how much data Swartz
had downloaded: "In a back-of-the-envelope calculation a few days
before the offsite crawl was shut down, Swartz guessed he got around 25
percent of the documents in PACER. The New York Times similarly
reported Swartz had downloaded "an estimated 20 percent of the entire
database". Based on the facts that Swartz downloaded 2.7 million
documents while PACER, at the time, contained 500 million, Lee
concluded that Swartz downloaded less than one percent of the
database.^[46]
Progressive Change Campaign Committee[edit]
In 2009, wanting to learn about effective activism, Swartz helped
launch the Progressive Change Campaign Committee.^[54] He wrote on his
blog, "I spend my days experimenting with new ways to get progressive
policies enacted and progressive politicians elected."^[55] Swartz led
the first activism event of his career with the Progressive Change
Campaign Committee, delivering thousands of "Honor Kennedy" petition
signatures to Massachusetts legislators asking them to fulfill former
Senator Ted Kennedy's last wish by appointing a senator to vote for
health care reform.^[56]
Demand Progress[edit]
In 2010,^[57] Swartz co-founded Demand Progress,^[58] a political
advocacy group that organizes people online to "take action by
contacting Congress and other leaders, funding pressure tactics, and
spreading the word" about civil liberties, government reform, and other
issues.^[59]
During academic year 2010-11, Swartz conducted research studies on
political corruption as a Lab Fellow in Harvard University's Edmond J.
Safra Research Lab on Institutional Corruption.^[11]^[12]
Author Cory Doctorow, in his novel Homeland, "drew on advice from
Swartz in setting out how his protagonist could use the information now
available about voters to create a grass-roots anti-establishment
political campaign."^[60] In an afterword to the novel, Swartz wrote,
"these political hacktivist tools can be used by anyone motivated and
talented enough.... Now it's up to you to change the system. ... Let me
know if I can help."^[60]
Stopping the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)[edit]
Swartz in 2012 protesting against the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)
Swartz was involved in the campaign to prevent passage of the Stop
Online Piracy Act (SOPA), which sought to combat Internet copyright
violations but was criticized on the basis that it would have made it
easier for the U.S. government to shut down web sites accused of
violating copyright and would have placed intolerable burdens on
Internet providers.^[61] Following the defeat of the bill, Swartz was
the keynote speaker at the F2C:Freedom to Connect 2012 event in
Washington, D.C., on May 21, 2012. His speech was titled "How We
Stopped SOPA" and he informed the audience:
This bill ... shut down whole websites. Essentially, it stopped
Americans from communicating entirely with certain groups....
I called all my friends, and we stayed up all night setting up a
website for this new group, Demand Progress, with an online petition
opposing this noxious bill.... We [got] ... 300,000 signers.... We met
with the staff of members of Congress and pleaded with them.... And
then it passed unanimously....
And then, suddenly, the process stopped. Senator Ron Wyden ... put a
hold on the bill.^[62]^[63]
He added, "We won this fight because everyone made themselves the hero
of their own story. Everyone took it as their job to save this crucial
freedom."^[62]^[63] He was referring to a series of protests against
the bill by numerous websites that was described by the Electronic
Frontier Foundation as the biggest in Internet history, with over
115,000 sites altering their webpages.^[citation needed] Swartz also
presented on this topic at an event organized by ThoughtWorks.^[64]
Wikipedia[edit]
Swartz at 2009 Boston Wikipedia Meetup
Swartz participated in Wikipedia since August 2003 under the username
AaronSw.^[65] In 2006, he ran unsuccessfully for the Wikimedia
Foundation's Board of Trustees.^[66]
In 2006, Swartz wrote an analysis of how Wikipedia articles are
written, and concluded that the bulk of the actual content comes from
tens of thousands of occasional contributors, or "outsiders," each of
whom made few other contributions to the site, while a core group of
500 to 1,000 regular editors tend to correct spelling and other
formatting errors.^[67] According to Swartz: "the formatters aid the
contributors, not the other way around."^[67]^[68] His conclusions,
based on the analysis of edit histories of several randomly selected
articles, contradicted the opinion of Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales,
who believed the core group of regular editors were providing most of
the content while thousands of others contributed to formatting issues.
Swartz came to his conclusions by counting the total number of
characters added by an editor to a particular article, while Wales
counted the total number of edits.^[67]
United States v. Aaron Swartz case[edit]
Main article: United States v. Aaron Swartz
See also: S: Open Access, and JSTOR
According to state and federal authorities, Swartz used JSTOR, a
digital repository,^[69] to download a large number^[ii] of academic
journal articles through MIT's computer network over the course of a
few weeks in late 2010 and early 2011. At the time, Swartz was a
research fellow at Harvard University, which provided him with a JSTOR
account.^[15] Visitors to MIT's "open campus" were authorized to access
JSTOR through its network.^[70]
The authorities said Swartz downloaded the documents through a laptop
connected to a networking switch in a controlled-access wiring closet
at MIT.^[14]^[15]^[71]^[72]^[73] The door to the closet was kept
unlocked, according to press reports.^[70]^[74]^[75] When discovered, a
video camera was placed in the room to film Swartz and his computer was
left untouched. Once a video of Swartz was recorded, the download was
stopped and he was identified. Rather than pursue a civil lawsuit
against him, in June 2011 they reached a settlement wherein he
surrendered the downloaded data.^[76]^[77]
Response from JSTOR[edit]
On September 25, 2010, the IP address 18.55.6.215, part of the MIT
network, began sending hundreds of PDF download requests per minute and
was affecting the performance of the entire JSTOR site.^[78] This
prompted a block of the IP address. In the morning, another IP address,
also from within the MIT network, began sending JSTOR more PDF download
requests, resulting in a temporary full block on the firewall level of
all MIT servers in the entire 18.0.0.0/8 range. An email was then sent
to MIT, describing the situation:
From an email sent on September 29, 2010, one JSTOR employee wrote to
MIT:
note that this was an extreme case. We typically suspend just one
individual IP at a time and do that relatively infrequently (perhaps
6 on a busy day, from 7000+ institutional subscribers). In this
case, we saw a performance hit on the live site, which I have only
seen about 3 or 4 times in my 5 years here. The pattern used was to
create a new session for each PDF download or every few, which was
terribly efficient, but not terribly subtle. In the end, we saw over
200K sessions in one hour's time during the peak.
-- NAME REDACTED, JSTOR^[79]
On July 30, 2013, JSTOR released 300 partially redacted documents,
which had been provided as incriminating evidence against Swartz. These
documents were originally sent to the United States Attorney's Office
in response to subpoenas in the case United States v. Aaron
Swartz.^[80]
(The following images are all excerpts from the 3,461-page PDF
document.)
* "Root Cause Analysis" Report (side 1), showing a descriptive
timeline of events from September 25, 2010, until December 26,
2010.^[81]
* "Root Cause Analysis" Report (side 2), showing JSTOR response and
incident resolution procedures.^[82]
* Email sent from JSTOR to Stephan, Heymann (USAMA), estimating
3.5 million PDF files had been downloaded.^[83]
* Email describing PDF download activity snapshots (see next images
in gallery)^[84]
* Describes PDF download activity, from JSTOR's databases to MIT
servers, between November 1 and December 27.^[85]
* PDF activity, from JSTOR to MIT, between January 1 to 15.^[86]
Arrest and prosecution[edit]
On the night of January 6, 2011, Swartz was arrested near the Harvard
campus by MIT police and a United States Secret Service agent. He was
arraigned in Cambridge District Court on two state charges of breaking
and entering with intent to commit a felony.^[13]^[14]^[73]^[87]^[88]
On July 11, 2011, Swartz was indicted by a federal grand jury on
charges of wire fraud, computer fraud, unlawfully obtaining information
from a protected computer, and recklessly damaging a protected
computer.^[15]^[89]
On November 17, 2011, Swartz was indicted by a Middlesex County
Superior Court grand jury on state charges of breaking and entering
with intent, grand larceny, and unauthorized access to a computer
network.^[90]^[91] On December 16, 2011, state prosecutors filed a
notice that they were dropping the two original charges;^[14] the
charges listed in the November 17, 2011, indictment were dropped on
March 8, 2012.^[92] According to a spokesperson for the Middlesex
County prosecutor, the state charges were dropped to permit a federal
prosecution headed by Stephen P. Heymann and supported by evidence
provided by Secret Service agent Michael S. Pickett^[93] to proceed
unimpeded.^[92]
On September 12, 2012, federal prosecutors filed a superseding
indictment adding nine more felony counts, which increased Swartz's
maximum criminal exposure to 50 years of imprisonment and $1 million in
fines.^[15]^[94]^[95] During plea negotiations with Swartz's attorneys,
the prosecutors offered to recommend a sentence of six months in a
low-security prison, if Swartz would plead guilty to 13 federal crimes.
Swartz and his lead attorney rejected that deal, opting instead for a
trial in which prosecutors would have been forced to justify their
pursuit of Swartz.^[96]^[97]
The federal prosecution involved what was characterized by numerous
critics (such as former Nixon White House counsel John Dean) as an
"overcharging" 13-count indictment and "overzealous," "Nixonian"
prosecution for alleged computer crimes, brought by then U.S. Attorney
for Massachusetts Carmen Ortiz.^[98]
Swartz died of suicide on January 11, 2013.^[99] After his death,
federal prosecutors dropped the charges.^[100]^[101] On December 4,
2013, due to a Freedom of Information Act suit by the investigations
editor of Wired magazine, several documents related to the case were
released by the Secret Service, including a video of Swartz entering
the MIT network closet.^[102]
Death, funeral, and memorial gatherings[edit]
External video
video icon Aaron Swartz Memorial at The Great Hall of Cooper Union,
(transcript)
video icon Aaron Swartz Memorial at the Internet Archive, (partial
transcript)
video icon DC Memorial: Darrel Issa, Taren Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Alan
Grayson
Death[edit]
On the evening of January 11, 2013, Swartz's girlfriend, Taren
Stinebrickner-Kauffman, found him dead in his Brooklyn
apartment.^[70]^[103]^[104] A spokeswoman for New York's Medical
Examiner reported that he had hanged himself.^[103]^[104]^[105]^[106]
No suicide note was found.^[107] Swartz's family and his partner
created a memorial website on which they issued a statement, saying:
"He used his prodigious skills as a programmer and technologist not to
enrich himself but to make the Internet and the world a fairer, better
place."^[22]
Days before Swartz's funeral, Lawrence Lessig eulogized his friend and
sometime-client in an essay, Prosecutor as Bully. He decried the
disproportionality of Swartz's prosecution and said, "The question this
government needs to answer is why it was so necessary that Aaron Swartz
be labeled a 'felon'. For in the 18 months of negotiations, that was
what he was not willing to accept."^[108] Cory Doctorow wrote, "Aaron
had an unbeatable combination of political insight, technical skill,
and intelligence about people and issues. I think he could have
revolutionized American (and worldwide) politics. His legacy may still
yet do so."^[109]
Funeral and memorial gatherings[edit]
Aaron Swartz Memorial sign at Internet Archive headquarters, San
Francisco, January 24th, 2013
Aaron Swartz Memorial program at Internet Archive headquarters, San
Francisco, January 24th, 2013
Swartz's funeral services were held on January 15, 2013, at Central
Avenue Synagogue in Highland Park, Illinois. Tim Berners-Lee, creator
of the World Wide Web, delivered a eulogy.^[110]^[111]^[112]^[113] The
same day, The Wall Street Journal published a story based in part on an
interview with Stinebrickner-Kauffman.^[114] She told the Journal that
Swartz lacked the money to pay for a trial and "it was too hard for him
to ... make that part of his life go public" by asking for help. He was
also distressed, she said, because two of his friends had just been
subpoenaed and because he no longer believed that MIT would try to stop
the prosecution.^[114]
Several memorials followed soon afterward. On January 19, hundreds
attended a memorial at the Cooper Union, speakers at which included
Stinebrickner-Kauffman, open source advocate Doc Searls, Creative
Commons' Glenn Otis Brown, journalist Quinn Norton, Roy Singham of
ThoughtWorks, and David Segal of Demand Progress.^[115]^[116]^[117] On
January 24, there was a memorial at the Internet Archive with speakers
including Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Alex Stamos, Brewster Kahle, and Carl
Malamud.^[118] On February 4, a memorial was held in the Cannon House
Office Building on Capitol Hill;^[119]^[120]^[121]^[122] speakers at
this memorial included Senator Ron Wyden and Representatives Darrell
Issa, Alan Grayson, and Jared Polis,^[121]^[122] and other lawmakers in
attendance included Senator Elizabeth Warren and Representatives Zoe
Lofgren and Jan Schakowsky.^[121]^[122] A memorial also took place on
March 12 at the MIT Media Lab.^[123]
Swartz's family recommended GiveWell for donations in his memory, an
organization that Swartz admired, had collaborated with and was the
sole beneficiary of his will.^[124]^[125]
Response[edit]
Family response[edit]
Aaron's death is not simply a personal tragedy. It is the product of a
criminal justice system rife with intimidation and prosecutorial
overreach. Decisions made by officials in the Massachusetts U.S.
Attorney's office and at MIT contributed to his death.
--Statement by family and partner of Aaron Swartz^[126]
On January 12, 2013, Swartz's family and partner issued a statement
criticizing the prosecutors and MIT.^[126] Speaking at his son's
funeral on January 15, Robert Swartz said, "Aaron was killed by the
government, and MIT betrayed all of its basic principles."^[127]
Tom Dolan, husband of U.S. Attorney for Massachusetts Carmen Ortiz,
whose office prosecuted Swartz's case, replied with criticism of the
Swartz family: "Truly incredible that in their own son's obit they
blame others for his death and make no mention of the 6-month
offer."^[128] This comment triggered some criticism; Esquire writer
Charlie Pierce replied, "the glibness with which her husband and her
defenders toss off a 'mere' six months in federal prison, low-security
or not, is a further indication that something is seriously out of
whack with the way our prosecutors think these days."^[129]
MIT[edit]
MIT maintains an open-campus policy along with an "open
network."^[75]^[130] Two days after Swartz's death, MIT President L.
Rafael Reif commissioned professor Hal Abelson to lead an analysis of
MIT's options and decisions relating to Swartz's "legal
struggles."^[131]^[132] To help guide the fact-finding stage of the
review, MIT created a website where community members could suggest
questions and issues for the review to address.^[133]^[134]
Swartz's attorneys requested that all pretrial discovery documents be
made public, a move which MIT opposed.^[135] Swartz allies have
criticized MIT for its opposition to releasing the evidence without
redactions.^[136] On July 26, 2013, the Abelson panel submitted a
182-page report to MIT president, L. Rafael Reif, who authorized its
public release on July 30.^[137]^[138]^[139] The panel reported that
MIT had not supported charges against Swartz and cleared the
institution of wrongdoing. However, its report also noted that despite
MIT's advocacy for open access culture at the institutional level and
beyond, the university never extended that support to Swartz. The
report revealed, for example, that while MIT considered the possibility
of issuing a public statement about its position on the case, such a
statement never materialized.^[140]
Press[edit]
Aaron Swartz mural by Brooklyn graffiti artist BAMN
The Huffington Post reported that "Ortiz has faced significant backlash
for pursuing the case against Swartz, including a petition to the White
House to have her fired."^[141] Other news outlets reported
similarly.^[142]^[143]^[144]
Reuters news agency called Swartz "an online icon" who "help[ed] to
make a virtual mountain of information freely available to the public,
including an estimated 19 million pages of federal court
documents."^[145] The Associated Press (AP) reported that Swartz's case
"highlights society's uncertain, evolving view of how to treat people
who break into computer systems and share data not to enrich
themselves, but to make it available to others,"^[61] and that JSTOR's
lawyer, former U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York Mary
Jo White, had asked the lead prosecutor to drop the charges.^[61]
As discussed by editor Hrag Vartanian in Hyperallergic, Brooklyn, New
York, muralist BAMN ("By Any Means Necessary") created a mural of
Swartz.^[146] "Swartz was an amazing human being who fought tirelessly
for our right to a free and open Internet," the artist explained. "He
was much more than just the 'Reddit guy'."
Speaking on April 17, 2013, Yuval Noah Harari described Swartz as "the
first martyr of the Freedom of Information movement."^[147]
Aaron Swartz's legacy has been reported as strengthening the open
access to scholarship movement. In Illinois, his home state, Swartz's
influence led state university faculties to adopt policies in favor of
open access.^[148]
Internet[edit]
Hacks[edit]
On January 13, 2013, members of Anonymous hacked two websites on the
MIT domain, replacing them with tributes to Swartz that called on
members of the Internet community to use his death as a rallying point
for the open access movement. The banner included a list of demands for
improvements in the U.S. copyright system, along with Swartz's Guerilla
Open Access Manifesto.^[149] On the night of January 18, 2013, MIT's
e-mail system was taken offline for ten hours.^[150] On January 22,
e-mail sent to MIT was redirected by hackers Aush0k and TibitXimer to
the Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology. All other traffic
to MIT was redirected to a computer at Harvard University that was
publishing a statement headed "R.I.P Aaron Swartz,"^[151] with text
from a 2009 posting by Swartz,^[152] accompanied by a chiptune version
of "The Star-Spangled Banner". MIT regained full control after about
seven hours.^[153] In the early hours of January 26, 2013, the U.S.
Sentencing Commission website, USSC.gov, was hacked by
Anonymous.^[154]^[155] The home page was replaced with an embedded
YouTube video, Anonymous Operation Last Resort. The video statement
said Swartz "faced an impossible choice".^[156]^[157] A hacker
downloaded "hundreds of thousands" of scientific-journal articles from
a Swiss publisher's website and republished them on the open Web in
Swartz's honor a week before the first anniversary of his death.^[158]
Petition to the White House[edit]
See also: Carmen Ortiz and Stephen Heymann
After Swartz's death, more than 50,000 people signed an online
petition^[159] to the White House calling for the removal of Ortiz,
"for overreach in the case of Aaron Swartz."^[160] A similar
petition^[161] was submitted calling for prosecutor Stephen Heymann's
firing.^[162]^[163] In January 2015, two years after Swartz's death,
the White House declined both petitions.^[164]
Commemorations[edit]
External video
video icon IHoF Induction Ceremony - Aaron Swartz on YouTube
On August 3, 2013, Swartz was posthumously inducted into the Internet
Hall of Fame.^[20] There was a hackathon held in Swartz' memory around
the date of his birthday in 2013.^[165]^[166] Over the weekend of
November 8-10, 2013, inspired by Swartz's work and life, a second
annual hackathon was held in at least 16 cities around the
world.^[167]^[168]^[169] Preliminary topics worked on at the 2013 Aaron
Swartz Hackathon^[170] were privacy and software tools, transparency,
activism, access, legal fixes, and a low-cost book scanner.^[171] In
January 2014, Lawrence Lessig led a walk across New Hampshire in honor
of Swartz, rallying for campaign finance reform.^[172]^[173]
In 2017, the Turkish-Dutch artist Ahmet Oeguet commemorated Swartz
through a work entitled "Information Power to The People" and depicting
his bust.^[174]
A sculpture of Aaron Swartz entitled Information Power to The People
created by Ahmet Oeguet
Legacy[edit]
Open Access[edit]
See also: S: United States v. Aaron Swartz case
A long-time supporter of open access, Swartz wrote in his Guerilla Open
Access Manifesto:^[42]
The world's entire scientific ... heritage ... is increasingly being
digitized and locked up by a handful of private corporations....
The Open Access Movement has fought valiantly to ensure that
scientists do not sign their copyrights away but instead ensure
their work is published on the Internet, under terms that allow
anyone to access it.
Supporters of Swartz responded to news of his death with an effort
called #PDFTribute^[175] to promote Open Access.^[176]^[177] On January
12, Eva Vivalt, a development economist at the World Bank, began
posting her academic articles online using the hashtag #pdftribute as a
tribute to Swartz.^[177]^[178]^[179] Scholars posted links to their
works.^[180] The story of Aaron Swartz has exposed the topic of open
access to scientific publications to wider audiences.^[181]^[182] In
the wake of Aaron Swartz, many institutions and personalities have
campaigned for open access to scientific knowledge.^[183] Swartz's
death prompted calls for more open access to scholarly data (e.g., open
science data).^[184]^[185] The Think Computer Foundation and the Center
for Information Technology Policy (CITP) at Princeton University
announced scholarships awarded in memory of Aaron Swartz.^[186] In
2013, Swartz was posthumously awarded the American Library
Association's James Madison Award for being an "outspoken advocate for
public participation in government and unrestricted access to
peer-reviewed scholarly articles."^[187]^[188] In March, the editor and
editorial board of the Journal of Library Administration resigned en
masse, citing a dispute with the journal's publisher, Routledge.^[189]
One board member wrote of a "crisis of conscience about publishing in a
journal that was not open access" after the death of Aaron
Swartz.^[190]^[191] In 2002, Swartz had stated that when he died, he
wanted all the contents of his hard drives made publicly
available.^[192]^[193] The "cOAlition S", a consortium launched by the
European Research Council continues the fight of Aaron Swartz with the
will to make available to all by 2020 all the scientific publications
financed by the member states of this coalition.^[194]
Congress[edit]
Several members of the U.S. House of Representatives - Republican
Darrell Issa and Democrats Jared Polis and Zoe Lofgren - all on the
House Judiciary Committee, have raised questions regarding the
government's handling of the case. Calling the charges against him
"ridiculous and trumped up," Polis said Swartz was a "martyr", whose
death illustrated the need for Congress to limit the discretion of
federal prosecutors.^[195] Speaking at a memorial for Swartz on Capitol
Hill, Issa said
Ultimately, knowledge belongs to all the people of the world....
Aaron understood that.... Our copyright laws were created for the
purpose of promoting useful works, not hiding them.
Massachusetts Democratic Senator Elizabeth Warren issued a statement
saying "[Aaron's] advocacy for Internet freedom, social justice, and
Wall Street reform demonstrated ... the power of his ideas ..."^[196]
In a letter to Attorney General Eric Holder,^[197] Texas Republican
Senator John Cornyn asked, "On what basis did the U.S. Attorney for the
District of Massachusetts conclude that her office's conduct was
'appropriate'?" and "Was the prosecution of Mr. Swartz in any way
retaliation for his exercise of his rights as a citizen under the
Freedom of Information Act?"^[198]^[199]^[200]
Congressional investigations[edit]
Issa, who chaired the House Committee on Oversight and Government
Reform, announced that he would investigate the Justice Department's
actions in prosecuting Swartz.^[195] In a statement to The Huffington
Post, he praised Swartz's work toward "open government and free access
to the people." Issa's investigation has garnered some bipartisan
support.^[196]
On January 28, 2013, Issa and ranking committee member Elijah Cummings
published a letter to U.S. Attorney General Holder, questioning why
federal prosecutors had filed the superseding indictment.^[95]^[201] On
February 20, WBUR reported that Ortiz was expected to testify at an
upcoming Oversight Committee hearing about her office's handling of the
Swartz case.^[202] On February 22, Associate Deputy Attorney General
Steven Reich conducted a briefing for congressional staffers involved
in the investigation.^[203]^[204] They were told that Swartz's Guerilla
Open Access Manifesto played a role in prosecutorial
decision-making.^[41]^[203]^[204] Congressional staffers left this
briefing believing that prosecutors thought Swartz had to be convicted
of a felony carrying at least a short prison sentence in order to
justify having filed the case against him in the first
place.^[203]^[204]
Excoriating the Department of Justice as the "Department of Vengeance",
Stinebrickner-Kauffman told the Guardian that the DOJ had erred in
relying on Swartz's Guerilla Open Access Manifesto as an accurate
indication of his beliefs by 2010. "He was no longer a single issue
activist," she said. "He was into lots of things, from healthcare, to
climate change to money in politics."^[41]
On March 6, Holder testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee that
the case was "a good use of prosecutorial discretion."^[205]
Stinebrickner-Kauffman issued a statement in reply, repeating and
amplifying her claims of prosecutorial misconduct. Public documents,
she wrote, reveal that prosecutor Stephen Heymann "instructed the
Secret Service to seize and hold evidence without a warrant... lied to
the judge about that fact in written briefs... [and] withheld
exculpatory evidence... for over a year," violating his legal and
ethical obligations to turn such evidence over to the defense.^[206] On
March 22, Senator Al Franken wrote Holder a letter expressing concerns,
writing that "charging a young man like Mr. Swartz with federal
offenses punishable by over 35 years of federal imprisonment seems
remarkably aggressive - particularly when it appears that one of the
principal aggrieved parties ... did not support a criminal
prosecution."^[207]
Amendment to Computer Fraud and Abuse Act[edit]
Main article: Aaron's Law
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Rep Zoe Lofgren Introduces Bipartisan Aaron's Law
In 2013, Rep. Zoe Lofgren (D-Calif.) introduced a bill, Aaron's Law
(H.R. 2454, S. 1196^[208]) to exclude terms of service violations from
the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and from the wire fraud
statute.^[209]
Lawrence Lessig wrote of the bill, "this is a critically important
change.... The CFAA was the hook for the government's bullying.... This
law would remove that hook. In a single line: no longer would it be a
felony to breach a contract."^[210] Professor Orin Kerr, a specialist
in the nexus between computer law and criminal law, wrote that he had
been arguing for precisely this sort of reform of the Act for
years.^[211] The ACLU, too, has called for reform of the CFAA to
"remove the dangerously broad criminalization of online
activity."^[212] The EFF has mounted a campaign for these
reforms.^[213] Lessig's inaugural Chair lecture as Furman Professor of
Law and Leadership was entitled Aaron's Laws: Law and Justice in a
Digital Age; he dedicated the lecture to
Swartz.^[214]^[215]^[216]^[217]
The Aaron's Law bill stalled in committee. Brian Knappenberger alleges
this was due to Oracle Corporation's financial interest in maintaining
the status quo.^[218]
Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act[edit]
The Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act (FASTR) is a
bill that would mandate earlier public release of taxpayer-funded
research. FASTR has been described as "The Other Aaron's Law."^[219]
Senator Ron Wyden (D-Ore.) and Senator John Cornyn (R-Tex.) introduced
the Senate version, in 2013 and again in 2015, while the bill was
introduced to the House by Reps. Zoe Lofgren (D-Calif.), Mike Doyle
(D-Pa.) and Kevin Yoder (R-Kans.). Senator Wyden wrote of the bill,
"the FASTR act provides that access to taxpayer funded research should
never be hidden behind a paywall."^[220]
While the legislation had not passed as of October 2015^[update], it
helped to prompt some motion toward more open access on the part of the
US administration. Shortly after the bill's original introduction, the
Office of Science and Technology Policy directed "each Federal agency
with over $100 million in annual conduct of research and development
expenditures to develop a plan to support increased public access to
the results of research funded by the Federal Government."^[221]
Media[edit]
Swartz has been featured in various works of art and has posthumously
received dedications from numerous artists. In 2013, Kenneth Goldsmith
dedicated his "Printing out the Internet" exhibition to
Swartz.^[222]^[223] The fate of Aaron Swartz was also featured in
conservative filmmaker Dinesh D'Souza's 2014 documentary America:
Imagine the World Without Her, wherein D'Souza compares Swartz's
prosecution to his own conviction for violating campaign finance laws,
and alleges that both cases exemplify selective, overzealous
prosecution.^[224]^[225] There are also dedicated biographical films
for Aaron:
The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz[edit]
Main article: The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz
On January 11, 2014, marking the first anniversary of his death, a
preview was released of The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron
Swartz,^[226] a documentary about Swartz, the NSA and SOPA.^[227]^[228]
The film was officially released at the January 2014 Sundance Film
Festival.^[229] Democracy Now! covered the release of the documentary,
as well as Swartz's life and legal case, in a sprawling interview with
director Brian Knappenberger, Swartz's father, brother, and his
attorney.^[230] The documentary is released under a Creative Commons
License;^[231]^[232] it debuted in theaters and on-demand in June
2014.^[233]
Mashable called the documentary "a powerful homage to Aaron Swartz".
Its debut at Sundance received a standing ovation. Mashable printed,
"With the help of experts, The Internet's Own Boy makes a clear
argument: Swartz unjustly became a victim of the rights and freedoms
for which he stood."^[234] The Hollywood Reporter described it as a
"heartbreaking" story of a "tech wunderkind persecuted by the US
government", and a must-see "for anyone who knows enough to care about
the way laws govern information transfer in the digital age".^[235]
Killswitch[edit]
Main article: Killswitch (film)
In October 2014, Killswitch, a film featuring Aaron Swartz, as well as
Lawrence Lessig, Tim Wu, and Edward Snowden, received its world
premiere at the Woodstock Film Festival, where it won the award for
Best Editing. The film focuses on Swartz's role in advocating for
internet freedoms.^[236]^[237]
In February 2015, Killswitch was invited to screen at the Capitol
Visitor's Center in Washington, D.C. by Congressman Alan Grayson. The
event was held on the eve of the Federal Communications Commission's
historic decision on Net Neutrality. Congressman Grayson, Lawrence
Lessig, and Free Press CEO Craig Aaron spoke about Swartz and his fight
on behalf of a free and open Internet at the event.^[238]^[239]
Congressman Grayson states that Killswitch is "one of the most honest
accounts of the battle to control the Internet - and access to
information itself."^[238] Richard von Busack of the Metro Silicon
Valley writes of Killswitch, "Some of the most lapidary use of found
footage this side of The Atomic Cafe".^[236] Fred Swegles of the Orange
County Register remarks, "Anyone who values unfettered access to online
information is apt to be captivated by Killswitch, a gripping and
fast-paced documentary."^[237] Kathy Gill of GeekWire asserts that
"Killswitch is much more than a dry recitation of technical history.
Director Ali Akbarzadeh, producer Jeff Horn, and writer Chris Dollar
created a human-centered story. A large part of that connection comes
from Lessig and his relationship with Swartz."^[240]
Other films[edit]
Patriot of the Web is an independent biographical film about Aaron
Swartz, written and directed by Darius Burke. The film was released on
September 15, 2019 onto YouTube.^[241]^[242] Actor Shawn Mcclintock
plays Aaron Swartz.^[243]^[244] The film had a limited video on demand
release in December 2017 on Reelhouse^[245] and in January 2018 on
Pivotshare.^[246]
Another biographical film about Swartz, Think Aaron, is being developed
by HBO Films.^[247]
Works[edit]
Specifications[edit]
* Markdown: Swartz was a major contributor to John Gruber's
Markdown,^[4]^[248] a lightweight markup language for generating
HTML, and author of its html2text translator. The syntax for
Markdown was influenced by Swartz's earlier atx language
(2002),^[249] which today is primarily remembered for its syntax
for specifying headers, known as atx-style headers:^[250] Markdown
itself remains in widespread use, with websites such as Reddit and
GitHub using it.
* RDF/XML at W3C: In 2001, Swartz joined the RDFCore working group at
the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C),^[251] where he authored RFC
3870, Application/RDF+XML Media Type Registration. The document
described a new media type, "RDF/XML", designed to support the
Semantic Web.^[252]
Software[edit]
* DeadDrop: In 2011-2012, Swartz, Kevin Poulsen, and James Dolan
designed and implemented DeadDrop, a system that allows anonymous
informants to send electronic documents without fear of disclosure.
In May 2013, the first instance of the software was launched by The
New Yorker under the name Strongbox.^[253]^[254]^[255] The Freedom
of the Press Foundation has since taken over development of the
software, which has been renamed SecureDrop.^[256]
* Tor2web: In 2008,^[257] Swartz worked with Virgil Griffith to
design and implement Tor2web, an HTTP proxy for Tor-hidden
services. The proxy was designed to provide easy access to Tor from
a basic web browser.^[258]^[259] The software is now maintained by
Giovanni Pellerano within the GlobaLeaks project.
Publication[edit]
* Swartz, Aaron; Hendler, James (October 2001). "The Semantic Web: A
network of content for the digital city". Proceedings of the Second
Annual Digital Cities Workshop. Kyoto, JP: Blogspace.
* Swartz, Aaron (January-February 2002). "MusicBrainz: A Semantic Web
service" (PDF). IEEE Intelligent Systems. 17 (1): 76-77.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.9338. doi:10.1109/5254.988466. ISSN 1541-1672.
Gruber, John; Swartz, Aaron (December 2004). "Markdown definition".
Daring Fireball. Archived from the original on April 2, 2004.
Swartz, Aaron (July 2008). "Guerilla Open Access Manifesto".
Swartz, Aaron; Hendler, James (2009). Building programmable Web
sites. S.F.: Morgan & Claypool. ISBN 978-1-59829-920-5.
Swartz, Aaron (Interviewee). We can change the world (Video) - via
YouTube.
Swartz, Aaron (Speaker) (May 21, 2012). Keynote address at Freedom To
Connect 2012: How we stopped SOPA (Video). D.C. - via YouTube.
Swartz, Aaron (February 2013) [2009]. "Aaron Swartz's A Programmable
Web: An Unfinished Work". Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web:
Theory and Technology ( open access PDF). Morgan & Claypool Publishers.
3 (2): 1-64. doi:10.2200/S00481ED1V01Y201302WBE005. Lay summary. "To
Dan Connolly, who not only created the Web but found time to teach it
to me."
Swartz, Aaron; Lucchese, Adriano (November 2014). "Raw Thought, Raw
Nerve: Inside the Mind of Aaron Swartz" ( open access PDF/ePub). New
York City: Discovery Publisher.
Swartz, Aaron (January 2016). The Boy Who Could Change the World: The
Writings of Aaron Swartz. The New Press. OL 25886237M.
Notes[edit]
^ Swartz has been identified as a cofounder of Reddit, but the title is
a source of controversy. With the merger of Infogami and Reddit, Swartz
became a co-owner and director of parent company Not A Bug, Inc., along
with Reddit cofounders Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian.^[260] Swartz
has been referred to as "cofounder" in the press and by investor Paul
Graham (who recommended the merger); Ohanian describes him as
"co-owner".^[34]^[261]
^ The MIT network administration office told MIT police that
"approximately 70 gigabytes of data had been downloaded, 98% of which
was from JSTOR."^[14] The first federal indictment alleged
"approximately 4.8 million articles", "1.7 million" of which "were made
available by independent publishers for purchase through JSTOR's
Publisher Sales Service."^[15] The subsequent DOJ press release alleged
"over four million articles". The superseding indictment removed the
estimates and instead characterized the amount as "a major portion of
the total archive in which JSTOR had invested."^[15]
See also[edit]
Scholia has a profile for Aaron Swartz (Q302817).
* Alexandra Elbakyan
* List of Wikipedia people
* Sci-Hub
References[edit]
1. ^ ^a ^b ^c Yearwood, Pauline (February 22, 2013). "Brilliant life,
tragic death". Chicago Jewish News. p. 1. Archived from the
original on October 17, 2013. "Aaron Hillel Swartz was not
depressed or suicidal ... a rabbi's wife who has known him since he
was a child says.... At age 13 he won the ArsDigita Prize, a
competition for young people who create noncommercial websites...."
2. ^ ^a ^b Skaggs, Paula (January 16, 2013). "Aaron Swartz Remembered
as Internet Activist who Changed the World". Patch.
3. ^ "RSS creator Aaron Swartz dead at 26". Harvard Magazine. January
14, 2013. "Swartz helped create RSS--a family of Web feed formats
used to publish frequently updated works (blog entries, news
headlines, ...) in a standardized format--at the age of 14."
4. ^ ^a ^b "Markdown". Aaron Swartz: The Weblog. March 19, 2004.
5. ^ Lessig, Lawrence (January 12, 2013). "Remembering Aaron Swartz".
Creative Commons. "Aaron was one of the early architects of
Creative Commons. As a teenager, he helped design the code layer to
our licenses..."
6. ^ ^a ^b Grehan, Rick (August 10, 2011). "Pillars of Python: Web.py
Web framework". InfoWorld. "Web.py, the brainchild of Aaron Swartz,
who developed it while working at Reddit.com, describes itself as a
'minimalist's framework.' ... Test Center Scorecard: Capability 7;
Ease of Development 9; Documentation 7; ...; Overall Score 7.6,
Good."
7. ^ "Aaron Swartz, Reddit Co-Founder And Online Activist, Dies At
26". NPR.org. Retrieved September 15, 2020.
8. ^ Lagorio-Chafkin, Christine (2018). We Are the Nerds: The Birth
and Tumultuous Life of Reddit, the Internet's Culture Laboratory.
Hachette Books. p. 4. ISBN 978-0316435406.
9. ^ Swartz, Aaron. "Sociology or Anthropology". Raw Thought.
Retrieved January 16, 2013.
10. ^ Swartz, Aaron (May 13, 2008). "Simplistic Sociological
Functionalism". Raw Thought. Retrieved January 16, 2013.
11. ^ ^a ^b Seidman, Bianca (July 22, 2011). "Internet activist charged
with hacking into MIT network". Arlington, Va.: Public Broadcasting
Service. "[Swartz] was in the middle of a fellowship at Harvard's
Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics, in its Lab on Institutional
Corruption"
12. ^ ^a ^b "Lab Fellows 2010-2011: Aaron Swartz". Edmond J. Safra
Center for Ethics. Harvard University. 2010. Archived from the
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system to prepare a monograph on the mechanisms of political
corruption."
13. ^ ^a ^b Gerstein, Josh (July 22, 2011). "MIT also pressing charges
against hacking suspect". Politico. Archived from the original on
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use of MIT facilities and Web connections to access the JSTOR
database ... resulted in two state felony charges for breaking into
a 'depository' and breaking & entering in the daytime, according to
local prosecutors."
14. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Commonwealth v. Swartz, 11-52CR73 & 11-52CR75, MIT
Police Incident Report 11-351 (Mass. Dist. Ct. nolle prosequi
December 16, 2011) ("Captain Albert P[...] and Special Agent
Pickett were able to apprehend the suspect at 24 Lee Street.... He
was arrested for two counts of Breaking and Entering in the daytime
with the intent to commit a felony....").
15. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g "Indictment, USA v. Swartz, 1:11-cr-10260,
No. 2 (D.Mass. July 14, 2011)". MIT. July 14, 2011. Retrieved
January 23, 2013. Superseded by "Superseding Indictment, USA v.
Swartz, 1:11-cr-10260, No. 53 (D.Mass. September 12, 2012)".
Docketalarm.com. September 12, 2012. Retrieved January 23, 2013.
^ US Attorney's Office District of Massachusetts (July 19, 2011).
"Alleged Hacker Charged With Stealing Over Four Million Documents from
MIT Network" (Press release). Archived from the original on May 26,
2012. Retrieved January 17, 2013.
^ Timothy, Lee. "Aaron Swartz and the Corrupt Practice of Plea
Bargaining". Forbes. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
^ "Aaron Swartz, Tech Prodigy and Internet Activist, Is Dead at 26".
Time. January 13, 2013. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
^ "Aaron Swartz, internet freedom activist, dies aged 26". BBC News.
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^ ^a ^b "Internet Hall of Fame Announces 2013 Inductees". Internet
Hall of Fame. June 26, 2013. Retrieved August 3, 2013.
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Stone.
^ ^a ^b Nelson, Valerie J. (January 12, 2013). "Aaron Swartz dies at
26; Internet folk hero founded Reddit". Los Angeles Times.
^ ^a ^b ^c Swartz, Aaron (September 27, 2007). "How to get a job like
mine". (blog). Aaron Swartz. Archived from the original on October 11,
2007. "We negotiated for months.... I started going crazy from having
to think so much about money.... The company almost fell apart before
the deal went through."
^ "Reddit co-creator Aaron Swartz dies from suicide". Chicago
Tribune. January 13, 2013.
^ Skaggs, Paula (January 15, 2013). "Internet activist Aaron Swartz's
teachers remember 'brilliant' student". Patch. Northbrook, Ill. "Swartz
... attended North Shore Country Day School through 9th grade."
^ Swartz, Aaron (January 14, 2002). "It's always cool to run..."
Weblog. Aaron Swartz. "I would have been in 10th grade this
year.... Now I'm taking a couple classes at a local college."
^ "Introducing theinfo.org". Aaron Swartz. Retrieved June 11, 2019.
^ "Second ArsDigita Prize 2000 Finalists and Winners". December 1,
2001. Archived from the original on December 1, 2001. Retrieved March
6, 2016.
^ Schofield, Jack (January 13, 2013). "Aaron Swartz obituary". The
Guardian. London. "At 13 [he] won an ArsDigita prize for creating The
Info Network."
^ Sekhri, Aaron (January 14, 2013). "Aaron Swartz, prodigy and
drop-out, takes own life". The Stanford Daily. Retrieved March 20,
2019.
^ ^a ^b Ryan, Singel (September 13, 2005). "Stars Rise at Startup
Summer Camp". Wired. Retrieved December 19, 2014.
^ ^a ^b Swartz, Aaron (2007). "Introducing Infogami". Infogami.
CondeNet. Archived from the original on December 24, 2007.
^ "A passion for your users brings good karma: (Interview with)
Alexis Ohanian, co-founder of reddit.com". StartupStories. November 11,
2006. Archived from the original on August 23, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Singel, Ryan (July 19, 2011). "Feds Charge Activist as Hacker
for Downloading Millions of Academic Articles". Wired. Retrieved
January 12, 2013.
^ "Breaking News: Conde Nast/Wired Acquires Reddit". Techcrunch.
October 31, 2006.
^ Lenssen, Philipp (2007). "A Chat with Aaron Swartz". Google
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May 11, 2010.
^ "Aaron Swartz's Jottit has been officially released". Reddit. 2007.
Retrieved October 20, 2015.
^ Klein, Sam (July 24, 2011). "Aaron Swartz vs. United States". The
Longest Now. Weblogs at Harvard Law School. "He founded watchdog.net to
aggregate ... data about politicians - including where their money
comes from."
^ "The team". Watchdog.net. Archived from the original on December
23, 2008. "Founder Aaron Swartz ... We're funded by a grant from the
Sunlight Network and the Sunlight Foundation."
^ Norton, Quinn (March 3, 2013). "Life inside the Aaron Swartz
investigation". The Atlantic. D.C. Retrieved March 8, 2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c McVeigh, Karen, Aaron Swartz's partner accuses US of
delaying investigation into prosecution, The Guardian, March 1, 2013.
Retrieved May 20, 2015.
^ ^a ^b Swartz, Aaron (July 2008). "Guerilla Open Access Manifesto".
Internet Archive. "We need to buy secret databases and put them on the
Web. We need to download scientific journals and upload them to file
sharing networks."
^ Murphy, Samantha (July 22, 2011). "'Guerilla activist' releases
18,000 scientific papers". MIT Technology Review. "In a 2008 'Guerilla
Open Access Manifesto,' Swartz called for activists to 'fight back'
against services that held academic papers hostage behind paywalls."
^ Leopold, Jason (January 18, 2013). "Aaron Swartz's FOIA Requests
Shed Light on His Struggle". The Public Record. Retrieved January 23,
2013.
^ "FOI Request: Records related to Bradley Manning". Muckrock.
Retrieved January 23, 2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lee, Timothy B.,The inside story of Aaron Swartz's
campaign to liberate court filings, Ars Technica, February 8, 2013.
Retrieved March 8, 2013.
^ Will Wrigley (February 7, 2013). "Darrell Issa Praises Aaron
Swartz, Internet Freedom at Memorial". HuffPost. Retrieved February 21,
2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Schwartz, John (February 12, 2009). "An
Effort to Upgrade a Court Archive System to Free and Easy". The New
York Times. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Singeln, Ryan (October 5, 2009). "FBI
Investigated Coder for Liberating Paywalled Court Records". Wired.
Retrieved January 12, 2013.
^ Johnson, Bobbie (November 11, 2009). "Recap: Cracking open US
courtrooms". The Guardian. London.
^ Malamud, Carl (January 24, 2013). Aaron's Army (Speech). Memorial
for Aaron Swartz at the Internet Archive. San Francisco.
^ Malamud, Carl (March 30, 2013). "On Crime and Access to Knowledge:
An Unpublished Essay".
^ "Timothy Lee (Bio)". Retrieved May 6, 2016.
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^ "Video of Lawrence Lessig's lecture, Aaron's Laws: Law and Justice
in a Digital Age". February 20, 2013. Retrieved March 24, 2013 - via
YouTube.
^ Lawrence Lessig. "the next words: A Lecture on Aaron's Law".
Lessig. Retrieved February 21, 2013.
^ "Transcript: Lawrence Lessig on 'Aaron's Laws: Law and Justice in a
Digital Age'". Archived from the original on November 22, 2017.
Retrieved April 20, 2013.
^ "Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review - A summary of
Lawrence Lessig's Chair Lecture at Harvard Law School".
Harvardcrcl.org. January 14, 2013. Retrieved May 30, 2015.
^ Dekel, Jonathan (May 1, 2014). "Swartz doc director: Oracle and
Larry Ellison killed Aaron's Law". Postmedia.
^ Peterson, Andrea (February 16, 2013). "How FASTR Will Help
Americans". Thinkprogress.org. Archived from the original on February
27, 2013. Retrieved March 24, 2013.
^ "Wyden Bill Makes Taxpayer Funded Research Available to the Public
| U.S. Senator Ron Wyden". Wyden.senate.gov. February 14, 2013.
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^ "White House Issues Public Access Directive". Publishers Weekly.
February 22, 2013. Retrieved May 28, 2013.
^ Zak, Dan (July 26, 2013). "'Printing Out the Internet' exhibit is
crowdsourced work of art". The Washington Post. Archived from the
original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
^ "Crowdsourced art project aims to print out entire internet". CBC
News. July 30, 2013.
^ Mahler, Jonathan (July 24, 2014). "Heady Summer, Fateful Fall for
Dinesh D'Souza, a Conservative Firebrand". The New York Times.
Retrieved December 12, 2016.
^ McGovern, Joe (August 11, 2014). "America: Imagine the World
Without Her". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved December 12, 2016.
^ "Aaron Swartz documentary". TakePart. Retrieved November 19, 2014.
^ Zelman, Joanna. "WATCH: Aaron Swartz Found NSA Scope 'Scary'".
HuffPost.
^ "Sneak preview of The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron
Swartz" - PandoDaily
^ "The Internet's Own Boy: The Story Of Aaron Swartz - Festival
Program". Sundance Institute. Archived from the original on March 25,
2014.
^ "The Internet's Own Boy: Film on Aaron Swartz Captures Late
Activist's Struggle for Online Freedom". Democracy Now!. January 21,
2014. Retrieved January 21, 2014.
^ Knappenberger, Brian. "The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron
Swartz". Internet Archive. Retrieved August 3, 2014.
^ Newton, Casey (January 23, 2014). "'The Internet's Own Boy' fights
for reform after Aaron Swartz's death". The Verge.
^ Matheson, Whitney (June 28, 2014). "Internet's Own Boy: Tech
activist's legacy". USA Today. p. B8.
^ "'The Internet's Own Boy' Is a Powerful Homage to Aaron Swartz".
Mashable. January 23, 2014. Retrieved January 23, 2014.
^ DeFore, John (January 21, 2014). "The Internet's Own Boy: The Story
of Aaron Swartz: Sundance Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved
January 23, 2014.
^ ^a ^b von Busack, Richard. "Breaking the Internet: Killswitch
Screens at Cinequest". Metro Silicon Valley. Retrieved February 25,
2015.
^ ^a ^b Swegles, Fred. "Battle for Internet Control Fuels O.C.
-produced Movie". Orange County Register. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
^ ^a ^b Grayson, Alan. "Grayson Screen Award Winning "Killswitch"
Documentary". Congressman Grayson's House of Rep Official Web Page.
Archived from the original on February 27, 2015. Retrieved February 23,
2015.
^ "The Price That You Pay for Rocking The Boat". HuffPost. March 27,
2015. Retrieved March 27, 2015.
^ Gill, Kathy. "Lawrence Lessig at 'Killswitch' Seattle Premiere:
Money, Politics, and the Battle for the Internet". GeekWire. Retrieved
June 5, 2015.
^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hWdDGpsPyO4
^ Burke, Darius (September 15, 2019), Patriot of the Web (Biography,
Drama, History, Thriller), Mary Peyton Stewart, Charles Luise, Scott
Sederquist, Michael Barry, Grandad Productions, Writer1Films, retrieved
September 15, 2020
^ "Patriot of the Web". IMDb. October 13, 2018.
^ "Patriot of the Web (@aswartzmovie)". Twitter.^[non-primary source
needed]
^ "Patriot of the Web". reelhouse.org.
^ "Patriot of the Web - Darius Burke - Watch Online for Just $4.99 -
grandadproductions". grandadproductions.
^ Andreeva, Nellie (December 4, 2017). "'Think Aaron' Movie Based on
Life Of "Hacktivist' Aaron Swartz in Works at HBO Films". Deadline
Hollywood.
^ Gruber, John. "Daring Fireball: Markdown". Daring Fireball.
Archived from the original on April 2, 2004. Retrieved April 25, 2014.
^ "atx, the true structured text format". www.aaronsw.com.
^ Gruber, John. "Daring Fireball - Markdown - Syntax". Daring
Fireball.
^ "RDFCore Working Group Membership". W3. December 1, 2002. Retrieved
January 15, 2013.
^ Swartz, A. (September 2004). "Request for Comments No. 3870,
'application/rdf+xml' Media Type Registration". Network Working Group.
The Internet Society. "A media type for use with the Extensible Markup
Language serialization of the Resource Description Framework.... [It]
allows RDF consumers to identify RDF/XML documents...."
^ Poulsen, Kevin. "Strongbox and Aaron Swartz". The New Yorker.
Retrieved May 16, 2013.
^ Davidson, Amy (May 15, 2013). "Introducing Strongbox". The New
Yorker. Retrieved June 20, 2013.
^ Kassner, Michael (May 20, 2013). "Aaron Swartz legacy lives on with
New Yorker's Strongbox: How it works". TechRepublic. Retrieved June 20,
2013.
^ Charlton, Alistair (October 16, 2013). "Aaron Swartz-Designed
Whistleblower Tool SecureDrop Launched by Press Freedom Foundation".
International Business Times. Archived from the original on October 17,
2013.
^ Aaron, Swartz. "In Defense of Anonymity". Retrieved February 4,
2014.
^ Zetter, Kim (December 12, 2008). "New Service Makes Tor Anonymized
Content Available to All". Wired. Retrieved February 22, 2014.
^ "tor2web brings anonymous Tor sites to the "regular" web".
arstechnica.com. Retrieved February 22, 2014.
^ "Not A Bug, Inc.: Private company information". Bloomberg Business.
October 31, 2006. Retrieved May 30, 2015. "The company owns and
operates portals that allow users to post contents and create
Websites.... As of October 31, 2006, [it] is a subsidiary of CondeNet,
Inc.... Key Executives for Not A Bug, Inc.: ... Huffman, President and
Director; ... Swartz, Treasurer and Director; ... Ohanian, Secretary
and Director."
^ "There was a third 'co-founder' of reddit", Today I Learned,
Reddit, October 18, 2010, "Aaron isn't a founder of reddit."
External links[edit]
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's
policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing
excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links
where appropriate into footnote references. (June 2020) (Learn how and
when to remove this template message)
Aaron Swartzat Wikipedia's sister projects
* Media from Wikimedia Commons
* News from Wikinews
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource
* Data from Wikidata
* Official website Edit this at Wikidata
* Aaron Swartz's Wikipedia user page
* Github.com/aaronsw (Aaron Swartz)
* Aaron Swartz on Twitter Edit this at Wikidata
* Remembrances (2013- ), with obituary and official statement from
family and partner
* The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz, The Documentary
Network, June 29, 2014, a film by Brian Knappenberger - Luminant
Media
* The Aaron Swartz Collection at Internet Archive (2013- ) (podcasts,
e-mail correspondence, other materials)
* Aaron Swartz on IMDb
* Posting about Swartz as Wikipedia contributor (2013), at The
Wikipedian
* Case Docket: US v. Swartz
* Report to the President: MIT and the Prosecution of Aaron Swartz
* JSTOR Evidence in United States vs. Aaron Swartz - A collection of
documents and events from JSTOR's perspective. Hundreds of emails
and other documents they provided the government concerning the
case.
* Federal law enforcement documents about Aaron Swartz, released
under the Freedom of Information Act
Further reading[edit]
External video
video icon Presentation by Justin Peters on The Idealist, June 11,
2016, C-SPAN
* Nanos, Janelle (January 2014). "Losing Aaron". Boston.
Peters, Justin (2016). The Idealist: Aaron Swartz and the Rise of
Free Culture on the Internet. Scribner. ISBN 978-1476767727. Biography
of Swartz.
Poulsen, Kevin. "MIT Moves to Intervene in Release of Aaron Swartz's
Secret Service File." Wired. July 18, 2013.
Documentary[edit]
* Brian Knappenberger (Producer and Director), The Internet's Own
Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz. Participant Media: 2014. Via The
Internet Archive, www.archive.org/ Run time: 105 minutes.
* Ali Akbarzadeh (Director), Killswitch: The Battle to Control the
Internet, Akorn Entertainment: 2014
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